BIULETYN OPINIE
No 30/2009
EU crisis management in Africa.
The time for a  real adventure
has come
Elizabeth Deheza
Warsaw, October 2009
 Biuletyn OPINIE of the Amicus Europae Foundation, No 30/2009
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While demand for international crisis management forces continues to increase rapidly, the
EU is still falling well short of its declared ambition in playing a major role in global security and in
the promotion of peace and stability. The 2003 European Security Strategy (ESS) stresses that the
Union  must be ready to shape events and develop a strategic culture that fosters early, rapid, and
when necessary, robust intervention & and it should be able to sustain several operations
simultaneously .1 Ten years of the European Security and Defense Policy (ESDP), under which the
Union conducts civil and military crisis management operations, have given the Union the
opportunity to assume a more prominent role in global crisis management, including detailed
military-technical procedures and a political strategic-framework to guide actions. However, and as a
matter of fact, the military operations launched outside Europe deployed in the African continent
played a crucial role to highlight the discrepancies between the EU s ambitions on a global scale and
the limitation of what it is capable to do. In 2003, in 2006, and subsequently in 2008, the EU forces
were requested by the UN to intervene in the conflict situations in the DRC and in Chad/RCA for
limited periods of time. In 2003, the Council implied the EU was capable of conducting  some crisis
management missions across the whole Petersberg spectrum2, covering humanitarian and rescue
operations, peacekeeping and crisis management tasks, while conceding that the ESDP was limited
by significant capabilities shortfalls. Giving green light to the EU forces, in 2003 the mission
Operation Artemis, was deployed in the DR Congo followed by other two missions: the EUFOR
RD Congo in 2006 and the EUFOR Tchad/RCA in 2008-2009. Even though, these missions
demonstrated that the EU can successfully carry out military operations outside Europe and achieve
 limited success , they also provided a clear understanding of the EU s aspirations and the problems
it faces in relation to force generation, capabilities, and political will among EU Member States. The
reality is that these missions can not serve as a model case for future EU missions causes as the
Union is not yet capable to provide such capacities.
The EU-AU cooperation: a failed partnership?
The EU is working more closely with regional organizations, in particular with the African
Union (AU). To this end, the EU has put major emphasis in defining better its foreign development
and security policy goals for the African continent. These have been adopted through a number of
1
Report on the Implementation of the European Strategy - Providing Security in a Changing World - 11 December 2008.

2
The  Petersberg Tasks had been defined by the Council of the WEU at a meeting in Petersberg. Part II, point 4 of the
Petersberg Declarations of 19 June 1992 says:  Apart from contributing to the common defense in accordance with
Article 5 of the Washington Treaty and Article V of the modified Brussels Treaty respectively, military units of WEU
member States, acting under the authority of WEU, could be employed for: humanitarian and rescue tasks; peacekeeping
tasks; tasks of combat forces in crisis management including peacekeeping .
2
 Biuletyn OPINIE of the Amicus Europae Foundation, No 30/2009
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key policy documents: the European Security Strategy (ESS) 20033; two Common Positions on
Conflict Prevention, Management and Resolution in Africa (2004, 2005)4; the Action Plan for
support to Peace and Security in Africa5; the Strategy for Africa, the Joint Africa-EU Strategy6 and
lastly, the Report on the Implementation of the European Security Strategy adopted in December
20087. It is worthwhile to note that in the ESS 2003, the regional conflicts on the African continent
were perceived as  less visible and less predictable threats that menaced the European interests
 directly and indirectly . Whereas in the Report on the Implementation of the ESS from December
2008, the African conflicts are no longer perceived as key threats, but as more  manageable
environments in which the EU is committed to enhance the  African capacities in crisis
management, including regional stand-by forces and early warning .8
But, how much have the recent developments improved  the bilateral military support
between the EU and the AU? The Joint Africa-EU Strategy reaffirms the EU support to the AU
guided by the principle of  African ownership , its commitment to provide the necessary capacity
building to the African Peace Facility (APF) through the EU crisis management instruments and
other programs through bilateral Member States support.9 One of the long-term goals of this
partnership is to have African peace-making, peace-keeping, and peace-building mechanisms in place
capable to take over any crisis management in the region. Despite all the aforementioned efforts to
improve expertise and experience, during the EU missions in Africa, the AU was not able to take
part in any of the missions. A clear prove is the mission in Chad, which started in 2008  6 years
after the AU was formed  and yet, the EU troops were not able to count on the African forces. It
seems that a change on the status quo is unlikely to happen, at least in the medium-run. The EU is
aware of the weaknesses on its military missions  particularly over key capabilities such as strategic
airlift, helicopters, space assets, and maritime surveillance. Therefore, relying on regional forces that
can give a considerable input to the EU missions on the ground is indispensible to successfully
conduct operations. The engagement of the EU forces in these military operations gave the Union
the opportunity to prove its willingness and its readiness to act in crisis situations without the
support of NATO or the AU forces. But at the same time, the limited successes obtained in these
short-term operations gave the EU good feelings of self-confidence impeding Europeans to properly
3
European Security Strategy - Brussels, 12 December 2003.
4
Common Positions on Conflict Prevention, Management and Resolution in Africa 2005/304/CFSP - 12 April 2005.

5
Africa-EU Peace and Security Partnership. security/africa-eu-peace-security-partnership_en.cfm>
6
Joint Africa-EU Strategy. 407591845C43/0/071206jsapenlogos_formatado.pdf>
7
Report on the Implementation of the European Security Strategy - Brussels, 11 December 2008.

8
Ibid., p. 11.
9
Joint Africa-EU Strategy, p. 5.
3
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learn from previous lessons and best practices, as it will be proven in all three military operations run
in Africa. This situation is making the EU to become victim of its own success. The more military
missions Europe runs, the more exposed its military weaknesses become. There is a high risk that the
false sense of security could leave the EU contingents unprepared to effectively respond to true
challenging crisis situations.
Operation Artemis
This mission was the first military engagement in which the EU would have been able to
demonstrate its ability to conduct an autonomous operation beyond the European continent and in a
very demanding environment. The operation, meant to restore order and to stop the massacres in
Bunia, was launched on 12 June 2003, following the UN Security Council Resolution 1484 of 30 May
200310. France was the first country to respond, but it offered personnel on the condition that the
mission would have a robust mandate (Chapter VII of the UN Charter), be welcome by the countries
in the region, and be limited in time and scope.11 Since the mission had clear limits on the key
parameters of size, duration, and responsibilities, the mission became attractive to many EU
members. The contingent Artemis was commanded by France (serving as a framework nation), but
the personnel came from Belgium, Germany, Sweden, the UK, and the non EU-state members of
Brazil, Canada, and South Africa.12 All in all, there were 1,400 troops, half of which were French
paratroopers.13 The mission mandate had to protect refugee camps and housing internally displaced
persons as well as to secure the airport of Bunia (the capital of Itura  a region were hostilities were
severe), and guarantee the safety of the civilian population and international personnel in the city of
Bunia. Operation Artemis was a reinforce to the UN forces (MONUC) already deployed in the DRC,
which needed additional military support in order to move to a peace process forward despite
continuing violence in the region.
Operation Artemis was symbolically an important mission because it was the first mission to
be conducted beyond the European continent and without the NATO support. The operation was
able to restore order in the town of Bunia and to secure the airport, which allowed the UN troops
(MONUC) to take over the mission. These achievements certainly helped to strength the internal EU
confidence building. At the same time, a number of shortcomings could be spotted. First of all, the
mission was basically a French operation as it was  the only country to have men engaged in direct
10
The deployment of the EU troops would  contribute to the stabilization of the security conditions and the
improvement of the humanitarian situation in Bunia, to ensure the protection of the airport, the internally displaced
persons in the camps of Bunia and if, the situation requires it, to contribute to the safety of the civilian population, UN
personnel and the humanitarian presence in the town . SC Resolution 1484 (2003).

11
Grignon F., The Artemis operation in the Democratic Republic of Congo: Lessons for the future of EU Peace-keeping in Africa, p. 2. <
http://www.ieei.pt/files/Paper_FGrignon.pdf>
12
Opérations de paix, Artémis Force internationale de maintien de la paix en Ituri.
13
Orders of Battle, Operation Artemis
4
 Biuletyn OPINIE of the Amicus Europae Foundation, No 30/2009
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military operations on the ground& and provided the headquarters for operational planning .14
Second, the mission s contribution to the saving of lives in Ituri was minimal. Only few kilometers
outside Bunia large scale massacres continued  the mandate was confined  only to Bunia. Third,
the mission did not become an EU operation because of African related considerations, but because
this was an opportunity for the EU to prove its skills on operational planning and the mobilization of
troops in a short period of time. More importantly, it is too easy to forget that only EU countries
that have the operational capacity to become  framework nations are France, UK and maybe
Germany. And thus, if these nations do not take the lead, there would be no EU capacity to
intervene in such conflicts.15 Fourth, these missions are very costly and countries that decide to take
part of EU missions have to pay for their own costs. This is the main reason, why Operation Artemis
had such a limited timeframe of three months: France was not able to afford a longer or stronger
mission. All in all it can be said that the mission did perform according to its mandate, but the
broader view for securing peace and stability in the region made only little steps forward and the
impact on the region was largely a short-term one.
EUFOR RD Congo
In April 2006, following the UN Resolution 1671 and the Council s adoption of a Joint
Action 2006/319/CFSP16, the EU deployed a new military mission in Congo to assist MONUC
troops during the first free Congolese presidential and parliamentary elections scheduled for 30 July
of the same year. The tasks for this new mission were to support MONUC to stabilize the situation;
to protect the civilians under immediate threat and the airport in Kinshasa; to secure freedom of
movement of the personnel; and to extract individuals in danger.17 21 EU Member States, Turkey,
and Switzerland contributed to the operation, which involved around 2,300 troops. The four largest
contingents came from France (1,090), Germany (730), Poland (130), and Spain (130).18 This time,
Germany was the leading nation for this mission with an operational headquarters in Potsdam,
Germany and a force headquarters in Congo run by a French company. The operation was launched
on 12 June 2006 and concluded on 30 November 2006.
EUFOR RD Congo was able to fulfill its tasks stated in the UN mandate, especially in one
particular event in which, an effective joint action between the EU and UN troops succeeded to
14
Grignon F., The Artemis operation in the Democratic Republic of Congo: Lessons for the future of EU Peace-keeping in Africa, p. 1. <
http://www.ieei.pt/files/Paper_FGrignon.pdf>
15
Ibid., p. 4.
16
Council Joint Action 2006/319/CFSP

17
UN Security Council Resolution 1671, 25 April 2006.
18
Ehrhart H.G., EUFOR RD Congo: a preliminary assessment, European Security Review no 32, March 2007, p. 9.

5
 Biuletyn OPINIE of the Amicus Europae Foundation, No 30/2009
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rescue some diplomats trapped in the middle of a fire fighting.19 One aspect that helped the EU
troops to fulfill its goals was that they were not supposed to lead Congo towards democracy, but
only to provide assistance to the UN troops in conducting the elections and deterring those
individuals who wanted to disrupt the process. Moreover, the EUFOR s mission was deployed
around Kinshasa and not in the more dangerous eastern regions of the country and with a very
restricted mission of only four months. As seen in Operation Artemis, the EUFOR mission revealed,
the same way, how difficult was to obtain commitments for crucial assets and capabilities from
Member States. As a matter of fact,  it took two weeks to close a gap in EUFOR s medical team: two
surgeons were needed .20 There were also political problems prior to, and during, the operation that
suggested certain difficulties in the Franco-German relations. Both countries continuously disagreed
on  rapid reactions , on deployment of troops, and on the duration of the entire operation since the
Germany s defense minister Franz-Josef Jung promised German troops their return to Germany for
Christmas of the same year.21 EUFOR pursued a  hearts and minds strategy and somehow
convinced the Congolese public that its presence in the region was purely to support the UN troops.
However, a main point of criticism was that the primarily reason for countries such as France and
Belgium to engage in these kind of missions was to secure their influence on the regional
government and to pursue their own economic interests. As one colonel stated,  Sometimes it feels
as if we were conducting missions to satisfy our consciences rather than achieve a certain effect on
the ground .22 Certainly, the intentions to  instrumentalize the EU mission pose a problem to the
ESDP because other nations will be reluctant to contribute to future military missions. It can be said
that all in all, the EUFOR RD Congo was characterized by a delicate tightrope walk between political
objectives and constrains on one side, and military requirements on the other side.
EUFOR Tchad/RCA
In January 2008, the European Union launched its largest and most ambitious military
mission in Africa  EUFOR Tchad/RCA following the UN Security Council Resolution 1769
(2007)23, which set up UNAMID (a joint UN-AU force), the report of 10 August 2007
(S/2007/488)24, in which the UN formally proposed a EU military bridging operation in the region,
19
Ibid., p. 10.
20
Giegerich B., European Military Crisis Management. Connecting ambition and reality, International Institute for Strategic
Studies, Adelphi Paper 397, p. 32.
21
Ehrhart H.G., EUFOR RD Congo: a preliminary assessment, European Security Review no 32, March 2007, p. 10.

22
Giegerich B., European Military Crisis Management. Connecting ambition and reality, International Institute for Strategic
Studies, Adelphi Paper 397, p. 27.
23
UN Security Council Resolution 1769 - 31 July 2007.

24
Report of the Secretary-General on Chad and the Central African Republic - 10 August 2007.

6
 Biuletyn OPINIE of the Amicus Europae Foundation, No 30/2009
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and the approval of the mission by the Council of the EU on 12 September 200725. The mission of
3,700 troops coming from 14 EU countries had the mandate26 to protect civilians in danger
particularly refugees and internally displaced persons in eastern Chad and the Central African
Republic (CAR). Even though, the authorities of Chad and the CAR were very reluctant to permit
the entrance of the UN and the EU troops, after many talks, they allowed the  multidimensional
presence to enter in the region. The EU mission was commanded by France and the operational
headquarters were situated in Mont Valérien near Paris. The operation faced problems even before
its deployment. The EU had difficulties in providing the necessary means of transportation to bring
soldiers and equipment to Chad. The various shortcomings culminated with India s offer to supply
the EU with fighting camels to serve as a substitute for the lack of helicopters. Little after the
mission was launched the deployment of the EU forces had to be stopped because of the intense
fighting, and took up again on 12 February 2008. These developments were not unanticipated; many
experts knew that the situation would escalate and would bring further destabilization in Darfur, as
the Austrian Armed Forces predicted in an assessment in November 2007.27 Even worse, there were
ongoing delays and shortfalls in the UN-African Union Mission in Darfur (UNAMID)  only one
third of the expected peacekeepers were deployed in February 2008.28 This certainly posed some
difficulties to EUFOR as it was supposed to complement an already divided UNAMID. The EU
troops found themselves almost unable to establish a secure and safe environment in a deteriorating
Darfur. The huge areas of operation  an area as large as Germany  combined with sever climate
and terrain conditions as well as the relative small size of limited equipped EU force challenged the
military operations. While EUFOR achieved the establishment of greater security in some zones, it
also created imbalances between less and more secured regions leading to further displacements.29 In
addition to this, since the EUFOR s mandate did not allow activities regarding the safety of people
inside the camps, security vacuums inside the refugee camps were formed, outside the camps the
situation was still volatile, refugees could not return home, and the security of aid workers was
increasingly threatened. Under these conditions, on 15 March 2009, Operation EUFOR Tchad/RCA
transferred the command to the new UN forces, the MINURCAT.30 All in all, this operation can be
judged as the worst military operation under the EU auspicious.
25
Council Joint Action 2007/677/CFSP on the European Union military operation in the Republic of Chad and in the
Central African Republic.
26
UN Security Council Resolution 1778 - 25 September 2007.

27
Bundesministerium der Landesverteidigung, Militärstrategische Weisung Nr. 2 (GZ S93304/134 Evb/2007).
28
Seibert B.H., EUFOR Tchad/RCA  A Cautionary Note, European Security Review no 37, March 2008, p. 1.

29
Ibid., p. 3.
30
Ehrhart H.G., Assessing EUFOR Chad/CAR, European Security Review no 42, December 2008, p. 1.

7
 Biuletyn OPINIE of the Amicus Europae Foundation, No 30/2009
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Assessing the EU ambitions and what it is capable to do
The EU s success in these relative modest and limited operations have encountered
embarrassing problems such as the force generation, the lack of a real common military planning
unit, the participation deficit of Member States, the misunderstandings between the EU-UN troops,
the lack of political will, and most importantly, the collective amnesia of all these shortcomings that
the Union keeps encountering in every military missions it launches.
Force generation problems
The EU crisis management ambitions are given by the two Headline Goals (HG 2003 and
HG 2010) in which the Union set the criteria for its crisis-management missions and the various
steps for its force generation31. The force-generation process is where the military assets and
capabilities required for an EU-led military operation are designated and made available to the
operations. All three missions to Africa revealed how difficult was for the EU to obtain and
coordinate capabilities from Member States and to be operational effective in crisis management. In
the  EU Concept for force generation 32 clear steps were drawn for the identification, activation, and
deployment of the EU troops in crisis management. However, in the identification process, the EU
failed to properly assess the African situation and to analyze the real roots of the conflict. Needless
to say, any military operation cannot be successful without the right bases and the knowledge of the
conflict. In the activation phases, the EU failed to deploy its missions in a timely manner because of
the lack of coordination and equipment. Finally, in the implementation phase, the EU was able to
contain the violence in the region, but only in a very limited area and with minimal effects for the
entire region. It is obvious that without significant offers (contributions and commitment) from
Member States, the force generation process will not be accomplished and future EU-led military
operation will continue to perform as they have to date.
Lack of a real common military planning unit
The EU has a common military planning unit, which consist of a dozen of analytical
employees based in the NATO Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe (SHAPE)33. This unit,
which is called EU Staff Group, is in charge of planning the missions on a strategic and operational
level. The reduced amount of analysts and policy-makers in charge of these missions cannot properly
plan military operation that range from 2000 to 4000 military personnel. As a matter of fact, the
undersize of this planning group, allows the staff to only focus on strategic planning and hand off
the operational planning to the chosen headquarters (national staff groups). This complex
arrangement allows national units to reflect their different  operational cultures leading towards
31
Headline Goal 2010. < http://www.consilium.europa.eu/uedocs/cmsUpload/2010%20Headline%20Goal.pdf >
32
EU Concept for Force Generation - Brussels, 16 June 2008, p. 8.

33
SHAPE-EU Cooperation.
8
 Biuletyn OPINIE of the Amicus Europae Foundation, No 30/2009
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policies and practices that favor national interests. The patchwork of authorities for the planning and
command of EU operations should be rearranged into one comprehensive and well-integrated
structure  EU Operational Headquarters (OHQ) in Brussels34, under the authority of the High
Representative of the EU. This OHQ should be responsible for all EU operations, both military and
civilian. However, inevitable objections from pro-transatlantic states will most likely impede the
creation of such unit.
Participation deficit
Member States offer military personnel on a voluntary basis. At the planning stage, they tend
to contribute in principle, but the commitment tends to evaporate when military personnel are
needed, especially for the fact that Member States are responsible for their own costs. Another
problem is that the EU s reservoir may not be always suitable or trained for the assigned role in
missions such as Artemis, EUFOR RD Congo or EUFOR Tchad/RCA.  A competent policeman in
Milan or Vienna is not necessarily adept at law enforcement in the midst of a civil war in Africa 35.
For this reason, many countries may be reluctant to participate because they are conscious that their
personnel might not be ready for such operations. It is important that the EU dispatches the right
people with the right skills to support the missions and avoid that the military troops perform tasks
for which they are not properly trained.
Complementary partners?
The EU is seeking to co-operate more closely with the United Nations on international crisis
management. In the ESS, the EU defines effective multilateralism as one of its strategic objectives,
with the UN being a key partner36. Although the UN and EU worked well together, there were some
differences and misunderstandings between the two in operational command. EUFOR RD Congo
could not act unless requested to do so by MONUC, which in turn had to ask to New York. The
UN and the EU contingents were not able to fully engage in their tasks because of their differences
in  Einsatzkulturen 37 in crisis management in the region. The UN troops would engage in fire fights
only in self-defense, whereas the EU troops would repeatedly engage in such fights with the local
militias. Under these conditions and, in such a violent region, the EU troops were at a very high risk.
If the EU troops had to engage in greater fighting with local militias, they wouldn t have had the
possibility to rely on NATO resources nor on UN troops and would have led to an inglorious
withdrawal.38
34
Witney N., Re-energizing Europe s security and defense policy, Policy Paper, The European Council on Foreign Relations, July
2008, p. 48.
35
Ibid., p. 43.
36
European Security Strategy, Part II,  Strategic Objectives .
37
Tanner F., Richtungsmodell zukünftiger EU-Friedenseinsätze?, Sicherheitspolitik ASMZ no 2/2004.
38
Ibid., p. 2.
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 Biuletyn OPINIE of the Amicus Europae Foundation, No 30/2009
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Lack of political will
When it comes to military security, the Union presents divisions that do not reflect power
differentials, but complex mixture of national and traditional attitudes. The political will to develop
an EU military capability is not there. Countries like the UK believe that operational planning should
be conducted under the NATO framework. However, it is hard to think of a mission where NATO
would have any strategic interest to get involved in the African conflicts. The same way, the EU
missions encounter bureaucratic impediments. In a large bureaucracy, such as the Union, it is easier
to ignore one s share of responsibility and avoid the risks of issuing or responding to rapid reactions
and proper coordination on crisis management  as it was the case in the Franco-German
collaboration in the EUFOR RD Congo. Another factor that contributed to internal tensions,
frictions, and operational ineffectiveness was the high level of multinationality of these operations.
Even though, multinationality increase the legitimacy of the missions, it also increases the chances
that at least some countries will come with national restrictions on the tasks they are allowed to carry
out and will delay and hinder the operations even more.
Collective amnesia
Finally, and with great emphasis, it is time for the EU to put in place serious arrangements
for learning from past experiences  robust assessment of what worked and what did not in each
operation, and systematic follow-up to fix the persistent problems. At the beginning of each
operation there is somehow a  collective amnesia of the lessons learned and the embarrassing
moments these missions had to go through. It seems that the EU tends to forget the  genois delays
in the Chad mission when EU military planners could not find enough transport capabilities and
Russia ended up lending four helicopters and 120 personnel to EUFOR.39 Or when it took the EU
two weeks to close a gap in EUFOR s medical team: two surgeons were needed. Even worse, the
various shortcomings culminated with India s offer to supply the EU with fighting camels to serve as
a substitute for the lack of helicopters. Amateur improvisations cannot be seen as a substitute to real
professionalism, and thus it is imperative the EU is capable to digest and learn its past experiences.
Moreover, without concrete steps by the Member States to modernize their militaries, the 200 billon
euros40 that the Union spends on defense each year are simply meaningless.
The limited successes of the EU missions in Africa are not only due to the efforts of the
troops to follow their mandate, but also thanks to good luck, ingenuity on the part of many
individuals who have found ways to work the unworkable, and a collective readiness to bring safety
and stability to the zones in conflict. The problems listed above are real impediments for the
39
Ehrhart H.G., Assessing EUFOR Chad/CAR, European Security Review no 42, December 2008, p. 2.

40
Witney N., Re-energizing Europe s Security and Defense Policy, Policy Paper, The European Council
on Foreign Relations, July 2008, p. 1.
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performance of the EU crisis management and, it is essential that, if the EU truly wishes to move
beyond rehearsals towards a more serious role in the maintenance of global security, it will have to
rethink what it can really do and maybe leave aside the great ambition of becoming a leader in the
maintenance of global security, at least for the time being. However, and on a positive note, the Irish
 Yes vote to the Lisbon Treaty has opened up a new period of hope about the prospects of the
EU s institutional reforms and a re-launch of the ESPD and  l Europe de la Défense where the idea
of a  multi-speed Union in crisis management can finally move away from a merely hypothetical
initiative.
* * *
Elizabeth Deheza  Associate Fellow at the Amicus Europae Foundation. Obtained her first degree
in International Relations from San Francisco State University (2007) under the mentorship of Prof.
JoAnn Aviel. Working for the Institute of Diplomacy and Foreign Relations (IDFR) in Kuala
Lumpur, Elizabeth Deheza assisted Tan Sri Hasmy Agam in a projection paper on Malaysia s future
foreign policy up to the year 2020 and beyond. She continued her studies for the MAIS program at
the Diplomatic Academy of Vienna and is currently completing the MALD program at the
prestigious Fletcher School of Law and Diplomacy in Boston.
______________________________________________________________________
The opinions expressed in  Biuletyn OPINIE are those of the authors and do not necessarily
represent those of the Amicus Europae Foundation.
11


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