Part Two. Detailed Procedures FM 90-13/FMFM 7-26
Chapter 8
A s s a u l t C r o s s i n g
GENERAL
The assault across the river phase normally begins detailed fire plan. Area suppression is lifted or shifted with an attack to secure a dismounted infantry lodge-when assault elements reach the exit bank or mask fires.
ment on the exit bank. This may involve an air assault, Overwatch elements are normally the tanks and in-but the bridgehead force normally assaults using fantry fighting vehicles of the assaulting, dismounted pneumatic boats or swims amphibous vehicles.
battalion task force. If an attached light infantry bat-The dismounted infantry assault is normally a battalion is conducting the assault, tripod-mounted heavy talion task force from the bridgehead force. The assault machine guns and antitank missile systems (augmented battalion normally crosses in waves, as sufficient boats by infantry fight vehicles and tanks) provide the over-are seldom available to carry the entire battalion task watch support. They are positioned under the control force across at once. It is a very complex operation, of the company XO and receive fire commands from requiring synchronization between multiple-force ele-the company commander with the assault element.
ments and skilled application of technical procedures.
Supporting artillery battalions and mortars provide Success requires training and extensive rehearsal indirect-fire support. The assaulting task force has Due to the extreme vulnerability of forces in small priority of fires from at least one artillery battalion boats on open water, the force normally assaults at night during the assault. Artillery does not normally fire a or during limited visibility. If it must be conducted preparation fire for covert assaults. It lays batteries on during daylight, the assault site must be isolated by fires priority targets and fires on request. This normally and smoke to reduce its vulnerability.
occurs after the initial wave is ashore or upon discovery.
This chapter describes the assault boat crossing. It If the assault is not covert, the battalion fires a prepara-focuses on conducting the crossing at night. It defines tion that continues during the crossing of the first wave, the organizational elements required to conduct an lifting on command when the boats approach the exit assault across a river and the necessary supporting bank.
techniques and procedures.
Mortars deploy near the river to cover the crossing.
Their location should keep them within range of the ORGANIZATION
task force objectives without displacement. Units The specific organization used is dependent on should stockpile rounds so that mortars can support the METT-T factors, particularly the size of the operation without replenishment during the assault.
bridgehead, the distance to exit-bank objectives, and Also, they can carry their untouched basic load with the nature of the threat defense. Regardless of these them when ordered to cross the river. The mortars factors, the assaulting battalion task force will organize primarily support with smoke,
into overwatch and assault elements and will be assisted Graphic fire-control measures are essential because in the assault by other brigade units in attack-by-fire of the danger of firing on friendly forces. Boundaries positions.
between companies should run along terrain features easily visible in the dark to help control the indirect fires Assault Overwatch Elements
during the dismounted assault.
Each assaulting company has a direct-fire overwatch Counterbattery fire is imperative to the success of the element under its control. This element covertly estab-river crossing. The target acquisition battery radars lishes an attack-by-fire position along the friendly bank deploy to cover the area before the assault crossing before the assault. They use night vision and thermal begins.
sights to locate threat positions. They also develop a fire Smoke is not normally used to support the first wave plan to engage these positions and to provide suppres-of a covert crossing because of the risk of losing sive fires on all suspected positions. When directed to surprise, but it hides later waves as they cross. If the engage, the overwatch element destroys all known and crossing is opposed, a smoke haze should cover the first suspected positions. The direct-fire overwatch ele-wave before it enters the water to reduce direct-fire ments must be positioned early enough to develop a effectiveness. The assaulting task force commander Assault Crossing 8-1
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Part Two. Detailed Procedures
initiates smoke obscuration. If smoke generators are For an assault using RB15s, each company requires available, they deploy to obscure a large length of the at least 200 meters along the river to disperse the boats river. Additional smoke along multiple sites on the river and ideally 300 meters between companies, This is a conceals the true crossing area. This additional smoke total of 700 meters for a battalion assaulting with two may be from smoke pots if nothing else is available.
companies abreast.
If units must fire smoke onto the far shore in order Control is very important, particularly by night when to cover the crossing area, they fire it on the command boats can easily become separated or lose direction.
of the assaulting task force commander after surprise Combat experience has demonstrated that engineer is lost. Mortars are the primary means of indirect-fire and infantry boat rehearsals before the crossing at-smoke. Direct-support artillery is generally reserved tempt are mandatory for success. These rehearsals for supporting fires.
should begin as soon as the unit receives the warning Air-defense teams deploy along the near shore of the order without waiting for the detailed crossing plan.
river to cover the crossing. Once in place, they remain Consideration for use of air assault are –
until the brigade releases them. They can move across
ó Indirect approach.
the river and link up with the assaulting task force only
ó Surprise.
after other SHORAD air-defense systems have taken
ó Flexibility.
position to cover the river. The crossing sites remain the
ó Rapid closing with the threat, if a landing zone is priority air-defense area throughout the crossing.
available.
ó Weather.
Assault Across the River Phase
ó High threat air-defense priority at the river, requir-Each lead battalion in a ground assault should have ing a suppression of enemy air-defense effort.
at least one ford or assault boat site big enough to
ó Separation of mechanized troops from their vehicles accommodate two companies abreast.
and equipment.
A hasty crossing is more likely to use fording vehicles
ó Vulnerability to armored counterattack, requiring a than a deliberate crossing, since it allows the force to quick ground linkup.
continue across the river without pausing to acquire Planning and execution are the same as for other air-other crossing means. A ford site should have 300
assault operations, covered in FM 90-4. As with assault meters along the near bank at the entry point for boats, rehearsals are necessary, particularly for troops deployment of overmatching elements.
not familiar with air-assault operations.
Considerations for the use of assault boats (RB15s) Against little or no resistance, swimming vehicles include "
may be practical in the assault stage. Considerations for
ó Opportunity for surprise in a silent paddle crossing.
swimming fighting vehicles are "
ó Speed (MPS using outboard motors).
ó Minimum effect on troop organization and control.
ó Good maneuverability in the water.
ó Troop protection, mobility, and firepower on the far
ó Limited, if any, entry-bank preparation " none on bank.
the exit bank.
ó Early antitank capability on the far bank by vehicle-
ó Mechanized troops separated from their vehicles mounted tube-launched, optically tracked, wire-and equipment.
guided (TOW) missiles.
ó Limited carrying capacity, particularly antitank
ó Reduced number of vehicles to be rafted.
weapons.
ó Slow swimming speed.
ó Limited protection, mobility, firepower, and com-
ó Poor maneuverability in water.
munications on the exit bank.
ó Extreme vulnerability to antiarmor weapons while in The unit protects itself during an assault boat cross-water.
ing by crossing silently, during periods of limited
ó Suitable entry and exit points.
visibility, and at a location where the threat does not
ó Vehicle preparation.
expect a crossing attempt.
ó Lack of troop training in vehicle swimming opera-Generally, an infantry platoon uses three boats for its tions.
personnel and attached elements. If short of boats, the Rapid reinforcement of dismounted assault troops dismounted elements of an infantry platoon equipped with armored vehicles is so critical that it justifies the with the M2 Bradley can fit in two boats. Allocation of use of any expeditious method to get the first few one squad per boat, when possible, preserves unit swimming vehicles across. This includes winching, integrity.
towing, or pushing the first ones across normally 8-2 Assault Crossing
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FM 90-13/FMFM 7-26
unsuitable places while engineers prepare better entry at the lowest level. The two basic boatload configura-and exit points for the rest.
tions are the rifle squad boat and the rifle platoon The space required to swim vehicles on line is 200
headquarters boat (see Figure 8-1).
meters of front per company with 300 meters between Each boat contains its engineer boat crew and a rifle companies. Less is required if they cross in column.
squad. The squad boat also carries an engineer assault Commanders plan entry and exit sites to account for team, while the platoon boat carries the platoon head-downstream drift of swimming vehicles.
quarters. The boat force commander is the senior occupant. He commands the force up to the attack Assaulting Units
position and after they debark on the far shore. The The assaulting task force normally has three dis-coxswain is the śpilot in command” and commands all mounted infantry companies of three infantry platoons boat occupants from the point that they man the boat each to conduct the assault. The task force may have in the attack position until they debark on the far shore.
formed company teams, but all assault companies must retain adequate dismounted infantry strength for the Note: Rifle squads illustrated are Bradley squads. The assault. Besides its organic infantry and armor, the same boat configuration is used for other squads, though assault task force has its fire-support team, its air-they may man more of the boat positions.
defense teams, and an attached combat engineer com-First-wave boats carry only critical cargo, such as pany (with the engineer platoons attached to the assault critical antitank and machine-gun ammunition demoli-companies).
tions and engineer tools required for breaching The first assault wave moves the bulk of the dis-obstacles.
mounted force across covertly. This force attempts to Platoon boats form a boat group of three boats, provide sufficient security on the far shore, so that the spaced 20 meters apart on the water. The boat group second and later assault waves can cross after surprise forms into a śV,” with the platoon leader’s boat acting is lost. It carries the rifle platoons, attached assault as the guide boat in the center. The two engineer assault engineers, forward observers, and rifle company com-teams are from an engineer squad, with the squad mand group.
leader commanding the team in the right boat and the The organization of the first wave permits rapid assistant squad leader commanding the team in the left deployment of the company into a tactical formation on boat. The assault teams re-form into a squad upon the far shore. Individual boat loads retain unit integrity debarking.
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Part Two. Detailed Procedures
Platoon boat groups form into company flotillas (see machine guns, TOW antitank systems, ground laser Figure 8-2). The company commander commands the location designator (GLLD), and Mark 19 40-mil-guide boat in the center platoon. The company com-limeter grenade launchers.
mand group disperses between boats, filling in vacant If secrecy is not required for the second wave be-boat positions. Platoon guide boats maintain a 40-meter cause the first wave is in combat, or if the threat has interval (two-boat interval) between boat groups.
begun to fire on the crossing area, outboard engines The first wave of the assault consists of all three propel the boats so that paddlers are not necessary.
company flotillas crossing on line. Battalions do not Immediate movement of some heavy antitank have a prescribed crossing formation. Each company weapons across to support the dismounted assault bat-crosses in its own zone and attacks its own objectives.
talion is essential. This is critical enough to justify ex-All undamaged boats return to the near shore after traordinary actions. As vehicles carry all heavy antitank carrying the first wave. The second and later waves weapons, engineers concentrate on forcing a few criti-carry across the remaining troops and materials that are cal vehicles carrying heavy weapons across immediately necessary to seize the far-shore lodgment. They also after the second wave. They hand carry them, if neces-carry the materials necessary to establish blocking posi-sary, even before direct fire and observed indirect fire tions and a hasty defense of the crossing area.
has been removed from the crossing area. Vehicles If sufficient boats are available, all rifle companies cross by swimming or fording or are dragged or rafted cross in the first wave. If not, the remaining company across.
crosses in the second wave (it may have its own far-Crossing-area engineers begin bank preparation on shore zone or be the task-force reserve). The second both the near and far shore, using hand tools and wave carries the company aid station and may include equipment where possible. They swim an ACE or deep the battalion command group. Since sufficient air-ford a bulldozer to get a winch capability to the far defense systems are in place to cover the crossing area, shore. Bradleys either swim or ford, with towing assis-the brigade may release some or all of the battalion’s tance if necessary. A bridge-erection boat can tow air-defense teams to cross in the second wave.
Bradleys if the current velocity is too high. Using a block The second wave also transports additional material and tackle fastened to a tree or picket holdfast, a bridge and ammunition not required for the initial assault but erection boat can help Bradleys leave the water over necessary to establish a defense. This may include an-unprepared banks. If high-mobility multiwheeled tiarmor weapons and ammunition, laser designators, vehicle (HMMWV) weapons carriers are available, mines, or pioneer tools. It normally includes tripod-they can be waterproofed and pulled across on the mounted weapons systems such as M2HB .50-caliber bottom with a winch cable. If absolutely necessary, 8-4 Assault Crossing
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rafting can be used, but this risks destruction of equip-possible. Strong swimmers (Red Cross-certified ment that will be critical later in the crossing.
lifeguards or water-safety instructors) from the en-Note: TOW electronics should be carried across in a gineers supporting the crossing make up the reconnais-boat.
sance party if divers are not available. Two swimmers make up a reconnaissance team to scout a company Engineers
crossing area.
Engineers supporting the assault are attached to the The reconnaissance party carries heavily lubricated assaulting companies as described above. Each com-weapons and wears LBE. They wear running shoes and pany receives an engineer platoon that accompanies use swim fins. Swimmers must wear Class 5 life jackets the assaulting force on to its objective, helping it fight as flotation devices. (US Army flat foam-filled life jack-through obstacles and prepared defenses. The en-ets will not serve.) The swimmers may wear racing gineers help the assaulting force establish hasty goggles but not face masks, which reflect too much defenses after it has seized its objectives. Engineers light. The swimmers camouflage their faces and hands normally come from the division engineer battalion that and tow any necessary equipment in bundles.
supports the brigade.
Swimmers must carefully avoid splashing. If neces-Boat engineers operate the boats and cross the as-sary, they wear weights to ensure that kick strokes are sault force. They are in direct support of the assaulting underwater. The party enters the water far upstream battalion until it has secured its objectives. They remain from the actual crossing site and floats with the current on the water after the assault force has crossed and while crossing. Swimmers use the sidestroke, facing continue to carry men and materials across in assault each other and observing behind the other swimmer.
boats until heavy rafts can take over the mission. Boat This allows 360-degree observation and communica-engineers also improve exit and entrance banks for rafts tion by hand and arm signals. When the swimmers and boats and assist with crossing the initial heavy approach the shore, they switch to the breaststroke so weapons. The boat engineers come from the engineer that they can observe the landing area. Swimmers must battalion that will remain on the river operating the use stealth and caution when approaching the beach.
crossing area.
They must keep a low profile in the water and also on Two boat engineers are assigned to each assault boat.
the beach. If they are experienced enough and have They are the coxswain and the lead paddler on the right sufficient confidence in their abilities, they can use side of the boat (stroke paddler). The stroke paddler camouflage head nets made from small pieces of controls the stroke during the assault crossing. The boat camouflage net to help conceal them as they approach engineers paddle the boats back for the next wave.
the beach.
Outboard motors normally are used during the second When the swimmers reach shallow enough water and wave.
determine that the situation is safe for landing, they Normally, an engineer platoon must operate the remove their fins. If they can immediately enter the boats for a first-wave assaulting company. An engineer woods upon leaving the water, they do so in a rush. If company can cross the assault battalion of a brigade.
the woods are a distance from the water, one swimmer Each assaulting company requires 9 boats plus a remains in the water just at the waterline and covers the safety boat. The assaulting battalion requires 30 boats other as he moves quickly across the beach. Once the to carry the assault companies, plus 1 for the battalion inland swimmer has moved to the edge of the woods, commander. If less are available, some companies may he covers his partner, who is moving across the beach not cross in the first wave.
to the same position.
Critical information requirements include –
OPERATIONS
ó Bank characteristics at the assault-boat landing Far-Shore Reconnaissance
areas.
Tactical reconnaissance of the far shore must cover
ó Water depth to a distance of 15 feet offshore.
abroad front to a significant depth to determine details
ó Any obstacles along the shore.
of terrain and threat defenses. This should occur early
ó Locations of threat observation posts.
and cover sufficient terrain to disguise the actual cross-The reconnaissance team checks potential areas ing area.
identified from the near shore and evaluates each based Engineers conduct a technical reconnaissance of the on its ability to support assault boats, disembark troops, far shore focusing on the immediate crossing area. A and moveoff the beach. The reconnaissance party also swimming reconnaissance team conducts it at night.
checks areas where raft and bridge centerlines can be Divers using snorkels conduct the reconnaissance, if installed.
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Part Two. Detailed Procedures
Far-shore reconnaissance is conducted early and at to reduce its signature. The camouflage net is secured multiple sites along the shore to generate information to the lifelines to aid in holding the cargo in the partially necessary for planning and selecting the most suitable submerged boat. The cargo team crosses oriented on areas. Normally, far-shore reconnaissance is conducted and swimming slightly upstream of the transit lights so by maneuver units supported by engineers.
that it can drift into shore with the current, limiting noise and splash.
Far-Shore Preparation
The preparation team installs landing markers as its The far shore is prepared immediately before the first priority. These are the same types of markers used assault crossing. The preparation team consists of a to guide the cargo team. They must be adequately two-man scout-swimmer team and a two-man cargo visible to the assault force but dim enough not to harm team with an inflatable reconnaissance boat – both also night vision. If flashlights are available, they have opa-from the supporting engineers. The swimmers that have que and/or colored filters installed to limit the light conducted the far-shore reconnaissance are normally output. Chemical lights remain in the foil wrappers with best suited to do the far-shore preparation. The only enough foil removed to provide necessary light. All preparation team installs landing markers for the landing markers are transit lights to mark the position flotillas. A separate team normally marks each com-and to help the boats set the proper course relative to pany zone to speed preparation.
the current. Normally, if the current is less than 0.5
The scout-swimmer team and the cargo team are MPS, the lights are set perpendicular to the river. If the equipped the same as the reconnaissance party, and current exceeds 0.5 meters per second, the lights are set they use the same techniques. The scout-swimmer team at a 45-degree angle to the river, facing upstream.
crosses first, floating downstream to the landing site Double transit lights mark the center boat group of the with the current. Upon landing, they move to the cor-flotilla, and single transit lights mark the flank groups.
rect landing site for the assault landing and signal for If colored lights are available, green lights mark the the cargo team to cross. They install transit lights to right boat group landing area, white the center, and red guide the cargo team as it crosses.
the left (see Figure 8-3).
Signaling is accomplished with a flashlight equipped The preparation team also makes a final examination with an opaque filter, sending a prearranged Morse of the landing areas for mines or obstacles. If they Code letter. The transit lights consist of either two discover isolated mines, they mark them and the routes flashlights with opaque filters and directional cones or around them. If the team finds a major minefield that two chemical lights in their foil wrappers with small will significantly hinder the landing at a site, they either areas torn open to release light. The team installs the notify the assault force and move the site upstream or lights so that one is roughly 1 meter above the water and downstream to avoid the mines or they attempt to the other is roughly 2 meters above the water and 2
breach the minefield. Once the preparation is com-meters behind it, aligned facing 45 degrees upstream.
plete, the team signals the assault force to begin cross-The cargo team waits until signaled to cross. It uses ing, initiating the movement of the first wave carrying a three-man reconnaissance boat as a flotation device the boats from the attack position. The preparation to carry marking materials, mine detectors, night-vision team then finds cover near the landing area for the goggles, and a radio. The reconnaissance boat is center boat of a predesignated boat group (generally covered with a camouflage net section and is partially the center boat group) and awaits its arrival. This boat deflated after loading so that it floats low in the water 6-6 Assault Crossing
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FM 90-13/FMFM 7-26
group is especially alert for linkup with the preparation secrecy. Generally, a rear-area river is the rehearsal team. While waiting, the team continues to watch for area.
threat activity and alerts the assault force of any sig-Before rehearsal, the boat crews and infantry train nificant changes.
together in the actual boat teams assigned for the crossing. Soldiers receive their boat assignments and prac-Near-Shore Reconnaissance
tice in their assigned positions until the boats can move Units must be extremely careful to hide reconnais-effectively on the water. The training must include boat sance elements conducting near-shore reconnaissance carry, launch, embarkation, watermanship, emergency in the crossing area or to deceive the threat about what actions, debarkation, and hasty defense.
they are doing.
Battalion and company command groups must con-Note: After rehearsal, boat assignments are not duct a daylight reconnaissance of the crossing area.
changed!
They must see the embarkation and debarkation points During training, the coxswain forms the boat team.
and key landmarks to help guide the force when cross-He forms the crew members in a column of twos in the ing. They must also see the attack position and the relative positions they will occupy in the boat, with routes from it to the river. Company guides must walk passengers at the rear of the two columns. He then the routes from the dismount points to the boat-group numbers the crew. The right side paddlers are 1, 3, 5, positions within the company attack position. Engineer and 7; the left side paddlers are 2,4,6, and 8, both sides boat coxswains must see the routes they will traverse from bow to stern. The stroke paddler is always number from the attack position to the water.
1 and the coxswain is always number 15, regardless of Support-force leaders and vehicle commanders must the number of paddlers used. Passengers are numbered covertly select firing positions and locate concealed consecutively from bow to stern starting with number routes into the positions for their vehicles during 11, who is always the bow gunner. The coxswain addres-daylight. They should identify sectors of fire and conses all crew members by number. When the coxswain duct extensive observation within the sectors to acquire wishes to address a command to a pair of paddlers, he specific targets.
uses their numbers together, as in "1 and 2," "3 and 4.”
Figure 8-4 shows only 8 paddlers. The boat can carry Assault Force Rehearsal
15 soldiers. If fully loaded, it uses 10 paddlers. Boat An assault boat crossing cannot be conducted effec-position numbers do not change.
tively in the face of opposition without thorough All forces participating in the assault crossing rehearsal. If possible, the force should conduct two rehearse together. The support force moves into posi-rehearsals. One should be during daylight, to learn the tion, and the assault force crosses in the same waves it procedures, and one should be at night, under actual will use for the actual crossing. Rehearsal should cover assault conditions.
the assembly area through to seizure of the assault-The rehearsal area should be similar to the actual force objectives.
crossing area but away from the river to preserve Assault Crossing 8-7
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Part Two. Detailed Procedures
Attack Position Procedures
don life jackets. Paddlers sling rifles diagonally, so the The attack positions must be large enough to accept rifle barrels extend up over the shoulders that will be a dismounted infantry rifle company. They should be –
away from the boat when standing alongside and facing
ó Accessible to trucks or carrying parties bringing the forward. Odd-numbered paddlers sling over their right assault boats.
shoulder, even numbered over their left. This allows
ó Concealed from hostile ground and aerial observa-carrying the boat at high carry and reduces interference tion.
with paddling. Muzzles must be up during all boat
ó Connected with clearly defined foot routes to the operations to prevent punctures. The teams then await river.
the command to proceed to the water.
ó Within 100 to 200 meters of the river.
ó In defilade from hostile flat-trajectory fire.
Embarkation Operations
On order of the company commander, the boat crew Trucks carry assault boats and life jackets as far paddlers carry the boats to the river. They make no forward as possible without compromising secrecy.
unnecessary stops from the time of departure from the They are met at the designated unload position by the attack position until the boat reaches the bank. The engineer platoon and company guides from each attack coxswain directs either śLow carry” or śHigh carry.” In position, who will unload the truck and carry their boats low carry, crew members lift the boat to about knee into place. The platoon can carry two at a time, so this height by the carrying handles while facing forward and will require five trips. If possible, HMMWVs moving at carry the boat at arms length. In high carry, crew mem-low speed to minimize noise can carry several boats at bers lift the boat to about head height, place it on a time into the attack position.
inboard shoulders, and carry it while gripping the carry Within the attack position, boat crews disperse as-handle with outboard hands. Normally, high carry is sault boats and life jackets along the boat group routes used for long distances, and the boat is shifted to low to the river. The safety boat is positioned as the last boat carry when approaching the bank. Paddles remain in in the downstream boat group. After the boats are the boat during carry procedures. Remaining crew placed in position and inflated, paddles are stowed in members follow the boat to the water.
the boat at each paddler’s location and life jackets are The boat crew may launch the boat either bow first placed on top of them. The remaining life jackets for or stern first. They launch it bow first whenever the passengers and coxswain are arrayed behind the boat.
water is shallow enough for the team to wade in carrying After the boats are prepared, each engineer squad the boat at low carry. They launch it stern first when the provides a guide to bring the platoon crossing on their water is too deep for wading or when the launch point boats from the assembly area. The platoon leader sends has steeply sloped banks. Bow first is the preferred the guide party to the assembly area, where they link up method.
with their boat groups. The remaining engineers establish local security around the attack position and await Bow first. On the coxswain’s command, śLaunch boat,”
the boat groups.
team members perform a low carry and move into the Soldiers arrive in the attack position with their water at a fast walk. When the depth of the water is such weapons cocked on an empty chamber, selector that the boat floats free of the bottom, all hands switches on SAFE, and magazines removed. Squad continue pushing it into the river remaining at their leaders must verify this in the assembly area before relative positions alongside the boat.
moving to the attack position. The soldiers are or-As the water reaches the knees of the first pair of ganized, without the boat engineers, into boat teams paddlers, the coxswain commands, śOne and two in.”
and boat groups in the assembly area. They travel as The first pair of paddlers climb into the boat, unstow boat groups. When they arrive at the attack position, their paddles, and give way together. The coxswain their guide leads them directly to their boats.
orders each pair of paddlers into the boat in succession When the boat team arrives at their boat, the by commanding, "Three and four in,” śFive and six in,”
coxswain commands, śCrew, boat stations. ” The team and śSeven and eight in." The pairs climb into the boat forms on the boat in proper boat positions, with pas-on command, break out their paddles, and pick up the sengers lining up to its rear. The coxswain then directs stroke of the stroke paddler.
the team to load and check weapons. The team insert The coxswain orders the passengers into the boat magazines and verify magazine seating but do not after the paddlers by commanding, śEleven in,” śTwelve chamber rounds. All weapons remain on SAFE. Squad in,” and so forth. Passengers board over the stern and leaders verify that all weapons are on SAFE. The move forward in the boat to their positions. The coxswain then directs the soldiers to sling weapons and coxswain enters the boat last and sounds off, śCoxswain 8-8 Assault Crossing
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in, hold water.” He then holds the boat in place until a 40-meter spacing between boat groups. The C2 boat the boat he is guiding on begins to cross.
is normally the lead boat of the center platoon.
Stern first. On the coxswain’s command, śLaunch The battalion command group remains on the near boat,” team members perform a low carry and carry the shore until the assault wave has landed. The com-boat stern first to the water’s edge. They launch the boat mander controls the near-shore direct fires and directs by passing it back along the line of team members.
changes in landing points if elements of the first wave When the stroke paddler can no longer help pass the encounter difficulties. He also directs changes for the boat back, he moves to the bow of the boat and handles following wave. The commander has his own boat and the towing bridle. Other team members follow suit, crosses on his own schedule, but he normally crosses taking their places along the towing bridle between the with the second wave. The command group normally stroke paddler and the boat.
does not cross in a single boat but is distributed among When the boat is in the water, the coxswain enters several boats.
the boat and takes his station. He then commands the Guide boats in all boat groups are responsible for boat team to load, starting with the rearmost left-hand ensuring that their group lands at the proper place.
paddler, that is, śEight in,” śSeven in,” śSix in,” śFive Landing marker lights are installed as transit lights to in,” śFour in,” śThree in,ś śTwo in.ś Passengers embark assist navigation on the water. The coxswain will see two next as he commands, śFourteen in, ” śE/even in.” When lights, one above the other. If the boat is moving straight the coxswain is ready to cast off, he commands, śStroke to the landing, the lights will be straight in vertical in.” The stroke paddler casts off, climbs into the boat, alignment. If not, the lower light points in the direction and takes his station. The coxswain allows the boat to the boat must go to be exactly headed for the landing.
drift back and turns it to face across the river. He then The boat will not head directly for the transit lights holds the boat in place until the boat he is guiding on except when the river has no current. The boat heads begins to cross.
for the far shore so that the boat’s true course is directly If motors are to be mounted before the first wave for the lights (see Figure 8-5).
crossing, the coxswain brings the boat in to shore stern first after the boat is manned and holds it in place either by a line to shore or by holding bottom. Two engineers wade to the boat carrying its motor and mount it on the transom.
Tactical Control Afloat
The coxswain navigates the boat, steers it, and directs the paddlers. He controls the movement of the boat in the water as well as embarkation and debarkation from it. He ensures that the boat maintains proper station on the guide boat. The boat commander sits in front of the coxswain and directs the boat in an emergency. He also commands the boat occupants upon landing until the unit has re-formed. The boat commander directs fires from the boat, if necessary.
Each platoon has a platoon guide boat, which contains the platoon headquarters. Other platoon boats position themselves to either side of the platoon guide boat as wingmen to maintain a 20-meter interval for protection against fires and to allow dispersion on landing. They follow the guide boat and land when it does.
They open fire from the boat when the guide boat does.
Each company has a command and control (C2) boat, which carries the company commander and leads his flotilla. The platoon guide boats position themselves at double-boat intervals from the C2 boat, maintaining Assault Crossing 8-9
FM 90-13/FMFM 7-26
Part Two. Detailed Procedures
Normally, the boats will cross slightly upstream from is 10 strokes per minute for stealth, 30 strokes per the landing so that they can drift in with the current, To minute for speed.
do this, they align so that the lower transit light points Commands
slightly downstream (see Figure 8-6).
If the force is conducting a crossing where smoke is
śHo/d water." Paddlers hold their paddles motionless necessary on the water and it obscures the far shore, in the water with the blade perpendicular of direction other navigation methods include stringing ferry lines of motion.
across the river for the boats to follow, using floating
śGive way together.” Paddlers stroke in unison fol-markers, or travelng on a compass heading.
lowing the rhythm set by the stroke paddler.
śSlows stroke.” The stroke paddler paddles 10 strokes per minute.
śFast stroke.” The stroke paddler paddles 30 strokes per minute.
śBackwater.” Paddlers paddle backward in unison with the stroke paddler.
śRest paddles.” Paddlers rest their paddles across their legs.
śHold bottom. ” Paddlers thrust paddles straight down into the river bottom and hold them against the side of the boat as a temporary anchor.
śLand boat.” The stroke increases to 30 per minute, with each paddler digging deep into the water for power to drive the boat up on shore. The stroke paddler stows his paddle as soon as the boat grounds, then disembarks and secures the towing bridle to the shore.
śRight, backwater left, give way together.” When paddlers execute these commands, the boat turns rapidly to the right. When the boat has turned to the new desired course, the coxswain commands, śAll, give way Watermanship
together.”
Watermanship includes all the skills that the boat
śLeft, backwater right, give way together. ” When pad-crew must exhibit to properly control their boat in the dlers execute these commands, the boat turns rapidly water. It includes individual paddling skills, responsive-to the left. When the boat has turned to the new desired ness to commands, and the skill of the coxswain.
course, the coxswain commands, śAll, give way Individual paddlers use a paddling technique where together.”
they push the paddle vertically into the water roughly 1
The coxswain can make minor adjustments in boat meter to their front and then power it back through the speed by directing, "SlOW the stroke” or śSpeed the water by pushing with the upper hand while using the stroke.”
lower (guide) hand for control. At the end of the power The coxswain must take the river current into ac-stroke, they remove the paddle from the water, turn it count when trying to hold a course. In low-velocity outboard and parallel with the water’s surface (feather-current, the boat can travel a relatively straight course ing), and move it forward for the next stroke. The stroke across the river by crabbing slightly upstream. To do is silent, with the paddlers careful not to strike the side this, the coxswain aims the bow of the boat slightly of the boat or to splash.
upstream while sighting on the landing mark. If the The stroke paddler sets the pace to control the pad-mark remains on a constant bearing (it does not drift dlers. He receives oral commands from the coxswain upstream or downstream), the boat is crabbing correct-and establishes and maintains the paddling pace. All ly and is headed directly for the landing, paddlers match the stroke of the paddler in front of If the current velocity is too high for successful crab-them, except for the number two man, who matches his bing (over about 0.5 MPS) either the boat must start stroke with the stroke paddler. If the boat crew has upstream or the coxswain must steer a figure-eight difficulty paddling in unison, the coxswain can exercise pattern. In both cases, the boat should approach the oral control by calling cadence. Normal paddling speed landing heading into the current to avoid the danger of 6-10 Assault Crossing
Part Two. Detailed Procedures
FM 90-13/FMFM 7-26
broaching. If the boat is launched from far upstream, it produce a column of smoke above water that can pin-generally follows a course similar to the dotted course point the crossing location. For this reason, smoke is in Figure 8-7. If the coxswain follows a figure-eight not used if conditions will not hold it close to the course, he steers upstream until aligned with the transit surface.
lights, then lets the bow drop downstream and guides Smoke production is dependent on wind direction.
on the lights until he reaches the landing point. He then If winds are blowing from the near shore toward the far steers upstream to the landing marks (see Figure 8-7, shore, smoke generators or support-force vehicles can solid line). These techniques minimize the amount of effectively smoke the crossing. If the winds tend to blow time the boat will be traveling slowly against the current parallel to the river, near-shore smoke should not be while near the threat shore.
used, as it will make a smoke wall that will silhouette The need for a figure-eight course is determined boats on the river. In this case, floating smoke pots during reconnaissance. The flotilla command boat sets anchored across the width of the river can produce the figure-eight course, completing the downstream effective smoke. If the wind is blowing from the far turn in alignment with the transit lights. Remaining shore to the near shore, smoke pots or mortar smoke boats simply maintain station until the last turn on the far shore can be effective.
upstream toward the landing area. Boat groups then head directly for the transit lights.
Direct Fire
Eddy currents (eddies) occur at channel bends, near All boats have a designated gunner at the bow, armed points of land, and at places where the bottom is un-with either a squad automatic weapon (SAW) or a even. Eddies can be dangerous to small boats. The biped-mounted machine gun. The gunners do not fire coxswain must be alert for them.
unless ordered to by the boat commander. If ordered to fire, the gunners engage the most dangerous target Smoke
or suppress the landing area. Most often, the gunners The purpose of smoking the crossing site is to achieve engage threat weapons firing on the assault force by a haze over water that can render direct and indirect firing back up the line of threat tracers.
fires less effective. It is particularly important not to Assault Crossing 8-11
FM 90-13/FMFM 7-26
Part Two. Detailed Procedures
If two passengers are available to be boat gunners, the second back from the bow should be armed with a grenade launcher.
All paddlers observe the paddle of the man to their front. In order to preserve their night vision, they do not look at the threat shore.
Debarkation Procedures
The manner in which the coxswain orders the boat team to land the boat depends on the depth of the water at the landing point.
Shallow water. As the boat nears the landing point, the coxswain directs the boat toward the landing and orders, śLand boat.” As the boat grounds, paddlers stow paddles and disembark over the side into the water.
They then hold the boat for the passengers to disembark. The stroke paddler secures the boat to shore to await return.
Deep water. As the boat comes alongside the shore, the coxswain orders, "Stroke out.” The stroke paddler stows his paddle and, with towing bridle in hand, gets out of the boat onto shore. He then pulls the boat up close to shore and secures it if he can. Otherwise, crew members will have difficulty debarking. The other crew members stow their paddles. The coxswain then directs debarking by number, beginning with the passengers, then the shoreside paddlers, and finally the riverside paddlers.
The coxswain is the last to leave the boat. He and the stroke paddler secure the boat and await return.
Immediately upon leaving the boat, the boat team forms a hasty perimeter. The bow gunner moves directly forward roughly 10 meters and drops prone, observing to his front. The left-side squad members move up and form a prone semicircle to his left, and the right-side soldiers form a semicircle to his right. The squad leader takes charge of his squad and directs all soldiers to drop their life jackets. He then awaits orders from his platoon leader.
Boat Return
As soon as the boat team has formed a hasty perimeter and dropped their life jackets, the stroke paddler recovers them and returns them to the boat.
The boat engineer squad leader (the senior engineer with the boat group) takes charge of all three boats in the boat group. He supervises tying off all three boats in trail and loads all six engineers into the front boat.
They then paddle the boat back to the friendly shore, towing the other two boats (see Figure 8-8).
On the return, the boat group travels in a relatively straight line to gain distance from the threat shore as rapidly as possible. This will cause the group to drift downstream. Upon reaching the near shore, the boat group turns upstream and travels close inshore until it 8-12 Assault Crossing
Part Two. Detailed Procedures
FM 90-13/FMFM 7-26
correct fuel and oil mixture to eliminate condensation.
reaches the departure point (see Figure 8-9). A guide In cool or cold weather, the motors are kept warm until from the engineer platoon headquarters guides them in needed, using a warming tent, ambulances with medical for the next wave.
markings covered, a heated building, or other means.
If the boats mount outboard motors, all three boat A two-man team of engineers from the crossing area crews start their motors on command of the boat en-engineer battalion carries each motor to the water and gineer squad leader and return independently to the mounts it on the boat. The boat is manned and held near shore.
with the bow toward the river and the stern to the shore.
Motor Procedures
If the bottom is shallow, the paddlers hold bottom. If If motors are available, they speed the crossing sig-the water is too deep or the current too strong, a line is nificantly. Normally, the first wave uses paddles to cross fastened to the boat stern to hold it against the shore.
covertly. After the boats return from carrying the first The mounting team wades out to place the motor on wave, the motors are mounted. If the boats can be the stern and fasten it in place. The coxswain directs the placed in the water without threat observation (in a paddlers to give way together after the motor is lagoon or barge basin, for example), the motors are mounted. He then starts the motor, with the boat under mounted on the boats before the first wave crosses. In way. If the boat has too few occupants to move effec-this situation, the motors can be started immediately if tively by paddles (during the second wave, for the crossing is discovered. The motors are also avail-example), the boat remains at the shore until the able for returning the boats after the first wave.
coxswain starts the motor.
If a covert crossing cannot be achieved, the first wave Cargo Procedures
may cross the river powered by motors. In this case, the Porters detailed from the assault battalion task force motors are mounted after the boat crew and passengers bring the cargo forward. They carry it to the waterline have boarded. The crew paddles the boat while the at the boat launch point to await the return of the boats.
coxswain starts the motor in order to reduce exposure When the boats return, the porters load and secure the time on the river.
cargo to the boat. If the cargo includes heavy or pointed Preparation is critical for success with outboard items, a temporary plywood floor is placed in the boat motors. The primary problem is hard starting. All before loading.
motors are started and run up to operating temperature Porters accompany the cargo to the far shore to during preparation. If any are difficult to start, replace-unload it. The cargo is unloaded into caches until ment motors are substituted (the hard-starting motors carrying parties are sent back from the assault force to become backups). After mechanical checks and get it.
warmup, the fuel tanks are completely filled with the Assault Crossing 8-13
FM 90-13/FMFM 7-26
Part Two. Detailed Procedures
Casualty Procedures
Weapons are always carried in boats with the bolt Platoon medics accompany assault forces in the first forward on an empty chamber and the weapon on wave. They carry their medical bags and night-vision SAFE. The only exception to this is the bow gunner, goggles but do not have litters. They treat wounded who will charge his weapon in the boat when directed where they fall, sending walking wounded back to the to fire. He must put the weapon on SAFE before landing area and leaving more severely wounded where debarking, and the squad leader must verify this by they were treated.
touch.
The second wave carries senior aidmen with equip-The soldier can immediately engage the threat, upon ment to establish a far-shore casualty collection point landing, by simply taking the weapon off SAFE and in each company zone. The aid station should provide charging the chamber.
a blackout shelter such as a tarpaulin or small tent for patient examination along with emergency medical WARNING
supplies and quantities of intravenous fluids. It also The soldier must not take the weapon off SAFE
carries litter teams formed from headquarters elements and charge the chamber before leaving the boat.
of the assaulting task force. The litter teams carry wounded back to the collection point. The senior A safety boat is always used during an assault cross-aidman at the collection point performs triage and ing. One safety boat is used for every company flotilla.
treats patients. Priority patients are evacuated by as-It contains at least one lifeguard-qualified swimmer sault boat as boats are available. All other patients wait (two, if possible), to act as a lifeguard. This lifeguard until rafts are available.
will not wear boots or LBE. The safety boat will also contain a boat hook and a float with an attached line for Safety
rescuing troops in the water. Rocket-propelled lifelines Safety is as important in combat as it is in peacetime will be included, if available. At a minimum, the boat training. Procedures are established and soldiers are commander is equipped with night-vision goggles. The trained in peacetime to be safe in combat. Loss of a crew of the safety boat comes from the supporting soldier to an accident in combat is just as intolerable as engineer force that provides the boats and boat crews, losing a soldier in peacetime and is potentially far more and consists of eight paddlers, the coxswain/com-dangerous to the force. Safety procedures are par-mander, a medic, and the lifeguard or lifeguards. It also ticularly important when considering the risks during contains a radio on the company frequency.
assault river crossings, where the lost soldier may be the The safety boat crosses parallel with the flotilla and key to mission success. Therefore, all safety procedures about 40 meters downstream. Its crew pays out a climb-must be followed in combat.
ing rope fastened to the near shore as a guard rope and The most important safety procedure is building a attaches life jackets as floats every four boat lengths well-trained force. Nothing is more unsafe than allow-
(see Figure 8-10). When it reaches the threat shore, the ing a force of amateurs to undertake a complex, crew ties off the guard rope and then moves back potentially hazardous task where the well-being of all is centered in the river. If a man goes in the water or a dependent on each man knowing his job. Peacetime boat capsizes, the affected boat group makes a quick training should never be avoided, because of the poten-radio call on the company frequency, indicating the tial hazards of a necessary combat task. Training to number in the water and the boat group calling. The standard in a controlled environment is the only way to alerted safety boat holds water, while its crew looks for surmount the hazards.
troops who are in the water or who are caught by the Life jackets are always worn when using assault guard rope.
boats. If Class 5 life jackets (German army style) are If a soldier goes in the water, he should immediately available, they are worn over LBE and the diagonally remove his helmet and release it. He should then roll slung rifle. The Class 5 life jacket will support the onto his back. If he is wearing a Class 5 life jacket, he soldier so equipped and hold his head out of the water.
retains his weapon and LBE. If he is wearing a lesser-If a life jacket providing lesser flotation is used, such as quality life jacket, he releases his rifle and LBE and the standard US Army flat foam-filled life jacket, it is drops them. He then allows the current to carry him, worn over the uniform. The LBE is worn over the life stroking and kicking to remain centered in the river or jacket, with the belt unfastened and the rifle slung to float to the friendly shore. He stays alert for the guard diagonally over all. Rifle slings are turned around so rope and safety boat. If he reaches the guard rope, he that the free end is away from the weapon. This allows wraps his arms in it or clips a snap link to it on his LBE
rapid jettison of the rifle in the water by pulling the free (if he is wearing LBE). He either waits for the safety end of the sling to release the fastener.
boat or moves along the rope to the nearest shore.
6-14 Assault Crossing
Part Two. Detailed Procedures
FM 90-13/FMFM 7-26
If the boat is subjected to heavy artillery fire while crossing, on command of the boat commander all crossing and if the boat commander directs, the personnel stow paddles, slip over the side while holding coxswain turns the boat downstream and propels it at a the safety line, and propel the boat to shore by kicking fast stroke with the current out of the artillery impact with their feet. Figure 8-11 provides a summary of the area. If the boat is subjected to heavy direct fire while steps involved in an assault crossing.
Assault Crossing 8-15
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