MEDI CI NE
CONTINUING MEDICAL EDUCATION
The Epidemiology, Etiology, Diagnosis, and
Treatment of Osteoarthritis of the Knee
Joern W.-P. Michael, Klaus U. Schlüter-Brust, Peer Eysel
steoarthritis is the most common disease of
SUMMARY
Ojoints in adults around the world (1). Felson et
Background: Osteoarthritis is the most common joint
al. reported that about one-third of all adults have radio-
disease of adults worldwide. Its incidence rises with age.
logical signs of osteoarthritis, although Andrianakos et
Both intrinsic and extrinsic risk factors promote its
al., in an epidemiological study, found clinically
development. In men aged 60 to 64, the right knee is more
significant osteoarthritis of the knee, hand, or hip in
commonly affected; in women, the right and left knees are
only 8.9% of the adult population (2, 3). Knee osteoar-
affected with nearly equal frequency.
thritis was the most common type (6% of all adults).
Methods: The PubMed, Medline, Embase and Cochrane
The likelihood of developing osteoarthritis increases
Library databases were selectively searched for current
with age. Studies have shown that knee osteoarthritis in
studies (up to September 2009; case reports excluded) on
men aged 60 to 64 is more commonly found in the right
the epidemiology, etiology, diagnosis, staging, and treat-
knee (23%) than in the left knee (16.3%), while its dis-
ment of osteoarthritis of the knee. The search terms were
tribution seems to be more evenly balanced in women
gonarthrosis, prevention, conservative treatment,
(right knee, 24.2%; left knee, 24.7%) (3, 4). The preva-
joint preservation, physical activity, arthroscopy,
lence of osteoarthritis of the knee is higher among 70-
osteotomy, braces, orthoses, and osteoarthritis
to 74-year-olds, rising as high as 40% (e2). When the
knee joint.
diagnosis is based on clinical signs and symptoms
Results and Conclusion: Osteoarthritis is not yet a curable alone, the prevalence among adults is found to be
disease, and its pathogenesis remains unclear. The best lower, at 10% (e3). The radiological demonstration of
treatment for osteoarthritis of the knee is prevention. typical signs of osteoarthritis of the knee is not corre-
The goal of therapy is to alleviate clinical manifestations. lated with symptoms: Only about 15% of patients with
The therapeutic spectrum ranges from physiotherapy and radiologically demonstrated knee osteoarthritis com-
orthopedic aids to pharmacotherapy and surgery.
plain of knee pain (e4). The incidence of the disorder
among persons over 70 is estimated at 1% per year (e5).
Epidemiological studies have revealed that there are
both endogenous and exogenous risk factors for
osteoarthritis (Table 1). Genetic factors unquestionably
play a role. In a clinical study involving female twins,
Spector et al. showed an effect of heredity on the devel-
opment of osteoarthritis of the hip and knee (e6). In
only very few cases, however, can osteoarthritis be
attributed to the effect of a single gene. Its development
and progression are more likely due to an interaction
Cite this as: Dtsch Arztebl Int 2010; 107(9): 152 62
among multiple genes, in combination with further risk
DOI: 10.3238/arztebl.2010.0152
factors. Cross-sectional studies have shown that the
risk of knee osteoarthritis is 1.9 to 13.0 times higher
among underground coal miners than in a control popu-
Klinik und Poliklinik für Orthopädie und Unfallchirurgie, Universität Köln:
PD Dr. med. Michael, Dr. med. Schlüter-Brust, Prof. Dr. med. Eysel lation (e7 e9); presumably, the main risk factor in this
Epidemiology
Osteoarthritis is the most common adult
joint disease.
152 Deutsches Ärzteblatt International Dtsch Arztebl Int 2010; 107(9): 152 62
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occupational group is frequent work in the kneeling or
TABLE 1
squatting position. Construction workers, too, particu-
Endogenous and exogenous risk factors for
larly floorers, have a significantly elevated prevalence
osteoarthritis of the knee*1
of knee osteoarthritis (e10). In another epidemiological
study, Grotle et al. found a significant dose-effect rela- Endogenous Exogenous
tionship for overweight (BMI >30) as a risk factor for
Age Macrotrauma
knee osteoarthritis, but not for hip osteoarthritis (e11).
Sex Repetitive microtrauma
The present article will discuss osteoarthritis of the
Heredity Overweight
knee on the basis of a selective review of relevant
scientific and clinical publications and an intensive
Ethnic origin (more common in Resective joint surgery
persons of European descent)
evaluation of current data from clinical trials. The
information given here should enable the reader to
Post-menopausal changes Lifestyle factors
(alcohol, tobacco)
recognize the risk factors for osteoarthritis of the
knee,
*1
from (e14)
be familiar with the diagnostic tests used to dem-
onstrate it, and
know how it can be prevented and what joint-
preserving treatment options are available.
Etiology
Knee osteoarthritis is classified as either primary (idio-
pathic) or secondary. Among the various structures
making up the knee joint, the hyaline joint cartilage is
the main target of the harmful influences that cause
osteoarthritis and the structure in which the disease be-
gins. 95% of hyaline cartilage consists of extracellular
matrix. Otte et al. coined the term organ of articu-
lation to emphasize the common functional purpose of
BOX 1
all structures composing the joint (5), from its bony
components covered with hyaline cartilage to its
capsule, ligaments, and menisci, and the muscles that
Etiologies of secondary osteoarthritis
move it. A list of etiologies of secondary osteoarthritis
of the knee*1
of the knee can be found in Box 1.
Post-traumatic
Congenital/malformation
Pathophysiology
Malposition (varus/valgus)
The dynamic equilibrium between the continual,
Postoperative
ongoing formation and breakdown of the cartilaginous
Metabolic
matrix is regulated by an interplay of anabolic
Rrickets
influences (e.g., insulin-like growth factors [IGF] I and
Hemochromatosis
II) and catabolic influences (e.g., interleukin-1, tumor
Chondrocalcinosis
necrosis factor [TNF] alpha, and proteinases). To a
Ochronosis
limited extent, these mechanisms can eliminate or
Endocrine disorders
compensate for the harmful influences that cause osteo-
Acromegaly
arthritis by stimulating and modifying the metabolic
Hyperparathyroidism
activity of chondrocytes. When these harmful
Hyperuricemia
influences exceed the system s ability to compensate,
Aseptic osteonecrosis
however, matrix degradation occurs; this is the first
*1
step in the development of osteoarthritis, which can from (e14)
progress to advanced disease (Figure 1). Why cartilage
Risk factors Etiology
Construction workers, particularly floorers, are at Knee osteoarthritis can be primary or secondary.
significantly elevated risk for osteoarthritis. Over- The hyaline cartilage of the knee joint is the target
weight has also been shown to have a significant of the damaging influences that cause osteoar-
dose-effect relationship with osteoarthritis. thritis.
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degenerates is not yet well understood. Mechanical and
enzymatic factors are thought to impair chondrocyte
function and damage the matrix (e12, e13) (Figure 2).
Diagnostic evaluation
The main goal of diagnostic evaluation is to demon-
strate the presence of osteoarthritis unequivocally, or
else to rule it out. A precise diagnosis enables precise
treatment. The major elements of the diagnostic evalu-
ation are the history, physical examination, imaging
studies, and, in some cases where special questions
arise, laboratory testing.
History
Patients suffering from osteoarthritis often complain of
pain on movement, typically occurring when move-
ment is initiated or when the patient begins to walk.
ab
The pain is often described as a dull ache. As osteoar-
Figure 1: Plain x-rays of the left knee in Kellgren and Lawrence stage 4:
thritis progresses, the pain becomes continuous, and the
a) AP view, b) lateral view
functionality of the joint is severely impaired. Histori-
cal criteria that are relatively specific for osteoarthritis,
The pathogenesis but can also be found in other joint diseases, are listed
FIGURE 2
of osteoarthritis
in Box 2.
(modified from e14)
Physical examination
Each stage of the disorder has its own characteristic
physical findings. Knee pain is the leading symptom,
usually becoming worse when the affected knee is put
in motion and improving when it is at rest. Persistent
pain at rest, or at night, can be a sign of advanced
osteoarthritis. The physical examination should incor-
porate all relevant findings, including findings on
inspection and palpation, testing of the range of move-
ment, and special functional tests when needed (e.g.,
ligament stability, meniscus tests, gait analysis). The
physical examination of the knee ligaments consists of
the following:
testing of the lateral ligaments with varus or
valgus stress, and
testing of the anterior and posterior cruciate liga-
ments with the drawer test.
Likewise, the menisci should be diagnostically
tested manually, and the femoropatellar joint should be
assessed for signs of irritation and for normal patellar
mobility. In the Zohlen test, the patient s knee is
extended, and the examiner gently presses the patella
into the trochlear groove while asking the patient to
tense the extensor muscles of the thigh (quadriceps
femoris). If this maneuver causes pain, the test is
Symptoms and signs Physical examination includes:
Persons suffering from knee osteoarthritis com- Generally relevant data
plain of limited movement and pain when they Inspection and palpation
initiate movement of the knee or start to walk. In Examination of the range of motion
advanced disease, they may complain of noctur- Special functional tests (e.g., meniscus tests,
nal or permanent knee pain. gait analysis)
154 Deutsches Ärzteblatt International Dtsch Arztebl Int 2010; 107(9): 152 62
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positive. Limping revealed by gait analysis may be due
BOX 2
to shortening of one leg.
Specific historical features of
Imaging studies
osteoarthritis*1
X-ray imaging studies are used both for primary diag-
nosis and to assess the progression of the disease. Plain Pain
films should be obtained in standardized fashion in at Pain at the beginning of movement
least two planes (a-p and lateral) (Figure 1). Special Pain during movement
functional plain films can be obtained as well to answer Permanent / nocturnal pain
specific diagnostic questions. The typical radiological Need for analgesics
signs of knee osteoarthritis that can be seen on plain Loss of function
films are incorporated in the staging system of Kellgren Stiffness
(6) (Box 3). Limitation of range of movement
Supplementary radiological studies can include Impairment in everyday activities
MRI, to demonstrate the hyaline cartilage, as well as Need for orthopedic aids
99m
Tc bone scanning, to assess metabolic activity in the Other symptoms
subchondral bone. These tests do not appear to yield Crepitation
much additional useful information. Ultrasonography is Elevated sensitivity to cold and/or damp
a good way to demonstrate the soft tissues and fluid- Stepwise progression
filled spaces, but it is highly examiner-dependent, and
*1Historical criteria for osteoarthritis in use at the Department of Ortho-
much experience is needed for the proper assessment of
paedic and Trauma Surgery, University of Cologne
its findings.
Staging
The clinical symptoms and signs of osteoarthritis and
its radiological correlates follow a typical course as the
BOX 3
disease progresses and can thus be incorporated into a
clinically useful staging system. The WOMAC osteoar-
The staging of osteoarthritis of the 1
thritis index (7), for example, reflects the clinical sever-
knee, after Kellgren and Lawrence*
ity of the disease. Though not commonly used in
routine clinical practice, the WOMAC index permits a
Stage 0
valid, reproducible assessment of the degree of impair- no abnormality
ment by pain and loss of function. A number of differ- Stage 1
ent joint-specific scoring systems have been developed incipient osteoarthritis, beginning of osteophyte
(8); they vary with respect to the weighting of subjec-
formation on eminences
tive and objective criteria.
Stage 2
moderate joint space narrowing, moderate subchon-
Treatment
dral sclerosis
Osteoarthritis is not a curable disease at present, as the
Stage 3
mechanism by which it arises and progresses remains >50% joint space narrowing, rounded femoral con-
incompletely understood. Therefore, the goal of treat-
dyle, extensive subchondral sclerosis, extensive os-
ment is to alleviate the signs and symptoms of the
teophyte formation
disease and, if possible, to slow its progression. The
Stage 4
therapeutic spectrum ranges from general measures to joint destruction, obliterated joint space, subchondral
physiotherapy, orthopedic aids and orthoses, pharma-
cysts in the tibial head and femoral condyle, sub-
cotherapy, and finally surgery and rehabilitation. As
luxed position
Mohig et al. stated, The best treatment for knee
1
from (6)
osteoarthritis is prevention (e15). Surgery is indicated
when the patient s symptoms accord with the physical
Imaging studies Clinical severity
The typical radiological findings of Kellgren/Law- The clinical severity of knee osteoarthritis is re-
rence stage 4 knee osteoarthritis are joint space flected in the WOMAC osteoarthritis index, which
narrowing, subchondral sclerosis, subchondral enables a valid, reproducible assessment of the
cysts, and peripheral osteophytes. degree of impairment by pain and loss of function.
Deutsches Ärzteblatt International Dtsch Arztebl Int 2010; 107(9): 152 62 155
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and radiological findings and all conservative treatments
FIGURE 3
have been exhausted. A helpful therapeutic algorithm for
osteoarthritis of the knee, which the authors have used
successfully at their institution, is shown in Figure 3.
Conservative treatment
The conservative treatment of knee osteoarthritis is
based on a stepwise therapeutic scheme (Box 4), which
is to be applied individually depending on the severity
and distribution of symptoms as well as any possible
accompanying illnesses (9, e16). A guideline for the
treatment of osteoarthritis of the knee (e17) has been
issued jointly by the German Society for Orthopedics
and Orthopedic Surgery (Deutsche Gesellschaft für
Orthopädie und orthopädische Chirurgie) and the
German Professional Association of Orthopedists and
Trauma Surgeons (Berufsverband der Ärzte für Ortho-
pädie und Traumatologie). The goals of treatment, as
stated in the guideline, are:
1. Pain relief
2. Improved quality of life
3. Improved mobility
4. Improved walking
5. Delayed progression of osteoarthritis
The guideline does not contain any assessment of the
individual conservative measures mentioned, nor does
it contain stage-specific recommendations for conser-
vative treatment. A summary of published studies on
the non-pharmacological treatment of knee osteoarthri-
tis, with their results and levels of evidence according
to the criteria of evidence-based medicine (CEBM,
[e18]), is given in Table 2.
An extensive discussion of each type of conservative
treatment would be beyond the scope of this article,
The treatment algorithm for clinically significant osteoarthritis of the knee in use at the
which is intended to provide an overview of all poten-
Department of Orthopaedic and Trauma Surgery, University of Cologne
tially applicable treatments.
General measures
These include patient education, lifestyle adjustment,
and, when indicated, weight loss. Any factors placing
excessive and damaging stress on the knee joint should
be eliminated, if possible. For example, with regard to
sports, the patient might be advised to switch from
Alpine (downhill) to Nordic (cross-country) skiing. For
any type of sport, good, adequately shock-absorbing
shoes are important, as are the proper training equip-
ment and correct performance of the sport. Chodosh et
al., in a meta-analysis (evidence level Ia), found that
general measures have no appreciable effect on pain
Conservative treatment General measures:
Conservative treatment is provided in stepwise Lifestyle adjustment, weight loss if necessary
fashion, as recommended by the European Elimination of damaging influences on the knee
League Against Rheumatism (EULAR). Good, shock-absorbing shoes
156 Deutsches Ärzteblatt International Dtsch Arztebl Int 2010; 107(9): 152 62
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and function in knee osteoarthritis (e19). A further
BOX 4
meta-analysis of 16 controlled trials (e20) yielded the
finding that individual exercise and self-management
EULAR stepwise recommendations
had a moderate, but clinically significant psychological
for the conservative treatment of
effect and made a positive contribution to the patients
osteoarthritis of the knee*1
emotional well-being.
1. Optimal management requires a combination of non-
Physiotherapeutic measures
pharmacological and pharmacological treatment modal-
Physiotherapy for knee osteoarthritis includes exercise
ities
therapy as well as physical measures, including the
2. The treatment of knee osteoarthritis should be tailored
following:
according to risk factors, severity of pain, presence or
ultrasound application (to relieve pain and support
absence of joint effusion, and degree of osteoarthritic
endogenous healing processes)
damage
electrotherapy
3. Non-pharmacological treatment: weight loss, orthope-
muscle stimulation
dic aids, physical and physiotherapeutic measures
application of heat and cold
4. Paracetamol is the analgesic of first choice for long-
transverse friction (a special massage technique)
term use, if effective
acupuncture
5. Topical applications (e.g., non-steroidal anti-
stretching/walking
inflammatory drugs [NSAID]) are effective
traction.
7. Opioid analgesics can be used effectively if paraceta-
Pollard et al. showed that manual therapy reduces
mol or NSAID are ineffective or poorly tolerated
pain and improves function significantly, in compari-
8. Symptomatic slow-acting drugs for osteoarthritis
son to a control group (evidence level II) (10). An
(SYSADOA) are an effective symptomatic treatment
analysis of 17 randomized controlled trials (evidence
9. Intra-articular injection of corticosteroids to treat effu-
level Ia) showed that pain could be relieved, and func-
sions and severe pain
tion improved, by either individualized or group
therapy (e20, e21). No particular treatment program
*1
modified from (9); EULAR, European League Against Rheumatism
was found to yield better results than the others.
Orthopedic aids and orthoses
Sometimes, an orthopedic aid or orthosis is necessary.
Orthopedic aids include, among others, cushioned
heels (providing a shock-absorbing function) and analgesics/anti-inflammatory agents
wedges to elevate the inner or outer side of the shoe, glucocorticoids
thereby correcting the axis to a certain extent and tak- opioids
ing mechanical stress off the affected part of the joint. symptomatic, slow-acting drugs for osteoarthritis
Some patients initially do not want to accept these aids, (SYSADOA)
but can be made more amenable to them by adequate anti-cytokines.
patient education and the active involvement of ortho- The specific risks associated with the use of classic
pedic technicians and shoemakers. Knee orthoses are non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are
also intended to relieve pain and improve joint function due to their mechanism of action, i.e., the inhibition of
(11). In a Cochrane Review, five controlled trials (evi- prostaglandin secretion through the inhibition of cyclo-
dence level Ib) were evaluated (e22). Patients wearing oxygenase (COX) in one or both of its two isoforms,
an orthosis were found to have significantly less pain COX-1 and COX-2. Specific inhibitors of COX-2 have
and better function than patients in the control groups. a selective anti-inflammatory effect but are still
markedly nephrotoxic. Nonselective COX inhibitors
Pharmacotherapy also have renal side effects. The Cochrane database
The following classes of medications are currently used contains a review of 16 randomized trials (evidence
to treat osteoarthritis of the knee: level Ia) (e23); yet, despite the large number of studies,
Manual treatment Pharmacotherapy:
Manual treatment has been shown to reduce pain Analgesics/anti-inflammatory drugs
and improve function significantly. Glucocorticoids
Opioids
SYSADOA
Anti-cytokines
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injections. Their guidelines are currently being up-
TABLE 2
dated. On the other hand, the current guidelines of the
Non-pharmacological treatment
American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons (AAOS)
recommend that intra-articular corticosteroid injections
Type of Question(s) Number of Level of Study findings
treatment addressed in trials evidence for the treatment of osteoarthritis should be performed
clinical trials
in the short term only (e25). Septic arthritis is a serious
Physiotherapy Evidence 17 RCT Ia Pain relief, potential complication. In a retrospective study from
for benefit of functional improve-
Iceland, the risk of septic arthritis was calculated to be
physiotherapy ment
0.037% per corticosteroid injection (e26). Thus, in Ice-
Orthosis With vs. without 4 RCT Ib Positive effect
land, the frequency of joint infection complicating
orthosis
intra-articular corticosteroid injection is 1 case per
Ice treatment Ice massage, 3 trials Ib Ice massage:
2633 injections.
cold compresses improved flexion
In addition to the types of medications mentioned
and extension
above, there is a heterogeneous group of medications
Cold compresses:
no reduction of
that, unlike the COX-2 inhibitors, do not inhibit pros-
pain
taglandin synthesis. This group includes hyaluronic
Electrical TENS vs. no 6 trials Ia Pain relief, im-
acid, D-glucosamine sulphate, chondroitin sulphate,
stimulation TENS proved mobility
and diacerein. These medications are collectively
Ultrasound Ultrasound vs. 3 trials Ib No effect
called slow-acting drugs for osteoarthritis (SADOA), a
placebo, short-
term coined by the Osteoarthritis Research Society In-
wave radiation,
ternational (OARSI). They can be given either orally or
or galvanic
current
directly into the joint. Their effect, as the term SADOA
implies, is of gradual onset. These medications, in turn,
RCT, randomized controlled trial; TENS, transcutaneous electrical neural stimulation
are subdivided into symptomatic slow-acting drugs for
osteoarthritis (SYSADOA) and the so-called disease-
modifying osteoarthritis drugs (DMOAD). The mech-
anisms of action of the individual agents have not yet
been fully elucidated; they range from inhibition of
the efficacy and safety of these drugs cannot yet be inflammation and nociceptor blockade to a potential
judged conclusively. alteration of the viscoelastic properties of cartilaginous
When signs of inflammation arise, intra-articular tissue. Towheed et al. found that these drugs slow the
glucocorticoid injections can very rapidly eliminate a radiological progression of knee osteoarthritis (e27). In
joint effusion. The most suitable type of glucocorticoid a randomized, controlled, double-blind trial, Petrella et
for injection has been found to be one with a long half- al. (12) found that patients with knee osteoarthritis
life, in crystalloid solution, with a small crystal size treated with intra-articular injection of hyaluronic acid
(e.g. triamcinolone acetonide or hexacetonide, at a dose had significantly less pain and better function for up to
of 10 mg or 40 mg, respectively). Steroid injections three weeks afterward (evidence level I). No severe
should be used with caution in diabetic patients who are systemic side effects were reported.
already hyperglycemic. All joint punctures and injec- A number of drugs for osteoarthritis are intended to
tions must be performed with the proper sterile tech- counteract the pro-inflammatory, matrix-destroying ef-
nique, as described in the guidelines. In a meta-analysis fect of cytokines. Further treatment approaches include
(evidence level Ia) of the efficacy of intra-articular the administration of antibodies against TNF-Ä… (which
corticosteroid injections compared to placebo, hyal- are currently available) or the use of anti-inflammatory
uronic acid, and lavage, it was found that corticosteroid enzymes such as IL-4, IL-10, IL-13 and TNF-² (13).
injections significantly reduced pain two weeks after For the sake of completeness, mention is also made
the injection (RR 1.81) and three weeks after it (RR of other treatment approaches such as ointments, herbal
3.11) (e24). The German professional associations have and homeopathic remedies, leeches, and special diets
not yet issued any official recommendation about the containing gelatin and amino sugars. The efficacy of
duration and frequency of intra-articular corticosteroid these treatments seems questionable.
The AAOS guideline Further treatment options
Intra-articular corticosteroid injections are Bone-stimulating treatments
recommended for no more than short-term use. Joint surface restoration
Corrective osteotomy near the knee joint
158 Deutsches Ärzteblatt International Dtsch Arztebl Int 2010; 107(9): 152 62
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Surgery is indicated only when all conservative
BOX 5
measures have been tried without success, in patients
with advanced osteoarthritis and severe subjective
Joint-preserving surgical treatment
impairment from their symptoms (Box 5).
options
Surgery
Symptomatic
The overwhelming majority of intra-articular oper-
Lavage
ations are performed through an arthroscope. The main
Shaving
advantages of arthroscopic procedures are minimal
Debridement
operative trauma and a very low infection rate (under
Bone-stimulating
0.1%). Mosley et al. assessed the efficacy of arthros-
Drilling
copy in a randomized, placebo-controlled trial (evi-
Microfracturing
dence level I) (14). The patients in this trial were
Abrasion arthroplasty
assigned to one of three groups:
Group 1: arthroscopic debridement
Joint surface restoration
Group 2: arthroscopic lavage
Autologous chondrocyte transplantation (ACT)
Group 3: placebo group with a skin incision only.
Autologous osteochondral transplantation (OCT)
24 months after the procedure, the results in groups 1
Corrective osteotomy near the joint
and 2 were not significantly better than those in group
3. It was pointed out that the findings do not give any
indication of the role of placebo effects in surgical out-
come, or whether other, independent effects are at work.
Arthroscopic lavage was described as early as 1934
by Burmann (15). The purpose of this technique is to
rid the joint of detritus and inflammatory mediators. Its cells are taken from the joint, enzymatically isolated
probability of success as an individual procedure and cultured ex vivo, and then put back into the joint at
cannot be judged, because it is usually performed today the site of the cartilage defect, which is prepared ( fres-
concomitantly with other intra-articular maneuvers in hened up ) before the cultured cells are added (19).
the same operative sitting. Long-term results are not yet available to document the
Shaving, also called chondroplasty, involves remov- survival of the reimplanted cartilage cells (20).
ing frayed and fragmented cartilage (Outerbridge In autologous osteochondral transplantation (OCT),
stages 2 and 3) and smoothing the edges (16). This also called mosaicplasty, cylinders of cartilage and
technique, too, has been found to yield no more than a bone are taken from a part of the joint that is not
short-term benefit. affected, and then inserted into the cartilage defect with
Debridement, described in 1941 by Magnuson (17) press-fit technology. In principle, OCT can be perform-
as house-cleaning arthroplasty, serves the same ed through an arthroscope, unless the defect is too large
general purposes. It is also useful for the treatment of (21). An important finding is that fibrocartilage is
possible meniscal damage, the removal of free-floating macroscopically demonstrable at the interface between
bodies within the joint, and the reduction of symp- the osteochondral cylinder and the native local tissue;
tomatic osteophytes. thus, solid integration is not present (22). The reported
The goal of bone-stimulating techniques is to open results of OCT are, in general, very promising. For
the subchondral cartilage and thereby bring pluripo- example, the rate of good or very good outcomes was
tential stem cells to the joint surface, where they are 92% in a prospective clinical trial performed by
then supposed to form fiber bundles under the influence Hangody et al. (evidence level II) (23). 81 of the 98
of mechanical and biological forces. Studies have not follow-up arthroscopies that were performed revealed
revealed any significant differences between the congruent surfaces as well as the histologically verified
various methods that are used (18). survival of the transplanted osteochondral cylinders.
Autologous chondrocyte transplantation was de- Corrective osteotomy near the knee joint can be
scribed in 1984 by Brittberg. In this technique, cartilage performed in the frontal, sagittal, or transverse plane, in
Symptomatic, joint-preserving surgical Bone-stimulating surgical techniques
techniques
Drilling
Lavage Microfracturing
Shaving Abrasion arthroplasty
Debridement
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Conflict of interest statement
either the distal portion of the femur or the proximal
The authors declare that no conflict of interest exists according to the guide-
portion of the tibia (i.e., just above or just below the
lines of the International Committee of Medical Journal Editors.
knee). The goal of such operations is to tip the
affected portion of the joint out of the zone of excessive Manuscript submitted on 15 April 2009; revised version accepted on 21
December 2009.
mechanical stress, redirecting the weight-bearing axis
toward the portion of the joint that is still largely intact.
Translated from the original German by Ethan Taub, MD.
Procedures can be classified as either subtractive (tend-
ing to narrow the joint) or additive (tending to widen
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vention is important: If the influences that can poten-
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59: 936 44.
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for many forms of treatment, the clinical trials perform- acid for osteoarthritis of the knee. J Rheumatol 2006; 33: 951 6.
ed to date have shown only limited efficacy, this does 13. Yang KG, Raijmakers NJ, van Arkel ER, et al.: Autologous interleu-
kin-1 receptor antagonist improves function and symptoms in
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The best treatment for each patient should be chosen
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An important general principle is that surgery should
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be performed only when conservative treatment has
15. Burmann MS, Finkelstein H, Mayer L: Arthroscopy of the knee joint.
failed. J Bone Joint Surg 1934; 16: 255 68.
Overview
Methods of restoring the joint surface
Prevention is important: If influences that damage
Autologous chondrocyte transplantation (ACT)
the knee are eliminated, then osteoarthritis can
Autologous osteochondral transplantation (OCT)
be prevented, or else its progression can be
slowed if it is already present.
160 Deutsches Ärzteblatt International Dtsch Arztebl Int 2010; 107(9): 152 62
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fracture or abrasion arthroplasty for medial gonarthrosis. Knee
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L: Treatment of deep cartilage defects in the knee with autologous
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repair technology. Sports Med Arthrosc Rev 2008; 16: 196 201.
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mosaicplasty surgical technique. J Bone Joint Surg (Am) 2004;
86 Suppl. I: 65 72.
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plantation and osteochondral cylinder transplantation in cartilage
repair of the knee joint. A prospective, comparative trial. J Bone
Joint Surg (Am) 2003; 85: 185 92.
23. Hangody L, Vásárhelyi G, Hangoy LR, et al.: Autologous osteochon-
dral grafting-technique and long-term results. Injury 2008; 39
(Suppl. 1): 32 9.
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für Osteotomien bei der Behandlung des instabilen Kniegelenks. In:
Jakob RP, Stäubli HU (eds.): Kniegelenk und Kreuzbänder. Berlin:
Springer 1990.
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bei der Gonarthrose. In: Stuhler T (ed.): Gonarthrosen. Stuttgart,
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Corresponding author
PD Dr. med. Joern W.-P. Michael
Klinik und Poliklinik für Orthopädie und Unfallchirurgie
Universität zu Köln
Joseph-Stelzmann-Str. 9
50931 Köln, Germany
joern.michael@uk-koeln.de
For e-references please refer to:
@ www.aerzteblatt-international.de/ref0910
A case report is available at:
www.aerzteblatt-internationel.de/article09m0152
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Please answer the following questions to participate in our certified Continuing Medical Education
program. Only one answer is possible per question. Please select the answer that is most appropriate.
Question 1 Question 6
Which of the following is a significant exogenous risk Which of the following methods of treating osteoarthritis of the
factor for the development of osteoarthritis? knee has been shown to be beneficial at evidence level Ib?
a) Post-menopausal changes a) Arthroscopic lavage
b) Sports
b) Electrical stimulation
c) Underweight
c) Arthroscopic shaving
d) Depression
d) Magnetic resonance therapy
e) Macrotrauma
e) Orthosis
Question 2
Question 7
Which of the following is a common complaint of
What is the therapeutic purpose of chondroplasty?
patients with osteoarthritis?
a) Removing frayed cartilage and smoothing the edges
a) Sensitivity to heat
b) Transplantation of cartilage cells
b) Shock-like pain
c) Injection of hyaluronic acid
c) Infection with positive cultures
d) Repositioning of the joint axis
d) Pain on the initiation of movement of a joint
e) Transplantation of cartilage-bone cylinders
e) Onset of symptoms in adolescence
Question 8
Question 3
In which of the following locations can a corrective osteotomy
What radiological finding is characteristic of Stage 4
near the knee joint be performed?
osteoarthritis?
a) Proximal tibial
a) Beginning osteophyte formation
b) Distal tibial
b) Moderate joint space up to 50%
c) Proximal femoral
c) Joint destruction
d) Diaphyseal femoral
d) Joint space narrowing less than 50%
e) Diaphyseal tibial
e) Increased transparency
Question 9
Question 4
What is the main therapeutic purpose of corrective osteotomy?
What should be the first goal of treatment for
a) Regression of osteoarthritis
osteoarthritis of the knee, according to the guidelines?
b) Repositioning of the line of weight-bearing
a) Delaying progression
c) Building up cartilage
b) Improving walking ability
d) Smoothing out the defective cartilaginous surface
c) Improving joint motility
e) Restricting movement
d) Pain relief
e) Improving the patient s quality of life
Question 10
According to the EULAR treatment algorithm, what is the agent
Question 5
of first choice in the treatment of osteoarthritis, which should
What is the main benefit of orthopedic aids in the
be given over the long term, if it is effective?
treatment of osteoarthritis of the knee?
a) Paracetamol
a) Taking mechanical stress off the joint
b) Tramadol
b) Ridding the joint of debris
c) Corticosteroids
c) Muscle buildup
d) Acetylsalicylic acid
d) Regression of osteoarthritis
e) Preparation for surgery e) Indomethacin
162 Deutsches Ärzteblatt International Dtsch Arztebl Int 2010; 107(9): 152 62
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MEDI CI NE
CONTINUING MEDICAL EDUCATION
The Epidemiology, Etiology, Diagnosis, and
Treatment of Osteoarthritis of the Knee
Joern W.-P. Michael, Klaus U. Schlüter-Brust, Peer Eysel
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Deutsches Ärzteblatt International Dtsch Arztebl Int 2010; 107(9) Michael et al.: e-references I
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MEDI CI NE
CONTINUING MEDICAL EDUCATION
The Epidemiology, Etiology, Diagnosis, and
Treatment of Osteoarthritis of the Knee
Joern W.-P. Michael, Klaus U. Schlüter-Brust, Peer Eysel
Figure 1 Figure 2
Radial tear of the medial Medial cartilaginous
meniscus damage of the tibia,
stage 4
Figure 3
Microfracturing of the
medial tibial plateau
and partial resection of
Case
the medial meniscus
An otherwise healthy and well-nourished 42-year-
old woman came to us for a consultation. She had
sustained torsional injury to her right knee from a fall
at age 18. In 1987, because of lateralization of the pa-
tella, she had undergone a tuberosity transfer pro-
cedure on the right knee. A total of three arthroscopic
procedures had been performed because of medial
meniscal damage in the right knee. She had been osteophyte formation, a well-centered patella, and
asymptomatic for a long time thereafter, but then mild valgus deviation of the axis. Knee arthroscopy
presented to us again because she had been suffering revealed an area of stage 4 cartilaginous damage in
for six months from very severe pain related to the anteromedial tibial plateau measuring 5 x 5 mm,
weight-bearing on the right knee, localized to the as well as a radial tear of the medial meniscus
medial compartment of the knee. She could walk for (Figures 1 and 2).
only 15 minutes without crutches. On clinical exam- The medial meniscus was partially resected, and
ination, the most prominent finding was tenderness microfracturing of the medial tibial plateau was per-
over the medial joint space, with a medial meniscus formed (Figure 3). After six weeks of partial weight-
sign. The right knee joint was freely mobile, with bearing (15 kg), the patient was fully mobilized and
stable ligaments. Further findings included a joint ef- was asymptomatic for months thereafter.
fusion of considerable size and mild retropatellar
crepitations. The x-rays (knee in two planes, axial
patellar view and whole-leg radiograph) showed
Cite this as: Dtsch Arztebl Int 2010; 107(9): 152 62
osteoarthritis of the knee, more severe on the medial
DOI: 10.3238/arztebl.2010.0152
side, with narrowing of the joint space and
I Deutsches Ärzteblatt International Dtsch Arztebl Int 2010; 107(9) Michael et al.: Case
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