Rezk et al. BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine (2015) 15:364
DOI 10.1186/s12906-015-0860-8
RESEARCH ARTICLE Open Access
Assessment of cytotoxicity exerted by leaf
extracts from plants of the genus Rhododendron
towards epidermal keratinocytes and intestine
epithelial cells
Ahmed Rezk1, Alaa Al-Hashimi1, Warren John1, Hartwig Schepker2, Matthias S. Ullrich1 and Klaudia Brix1*
Abstract
Background: Rhododendron leaf extracts were previously found to exert antimicrobial activities against a range of
Gram-positive bacteria. In this study, we investigated which of the extracts with these antimicrobial properties would
be best suited for further exploitation. Specifically, the project aims to identify biologically active compounds that affect
bacterial but not mammalian cells when applied in medical treatments such as lotions for ectopic application onto
skin, or as orally administered drugs.
Methods: Different concentrations of DMSO-dissolved remnants of crude methanol Rhododendron leaf extracts
were incubated for 24 h with cultured epidermal keratinocytes (human HaCaT cell line) and epithelial cells of the
intestinal mucosa (rat IEC6 cell line) and tested for their cytotoxic potential. In particular, the cytotoxic potencies
of the compounds contained in antimicrobial Rhododendron leaf extracts were assessed by quantifying their effects on
(i) plasma membrane integrity, (ii) cell viability and proliferation rates, (iii) cellular metabolism, (iv) cytoskeletal
architecture, and (v) determining initiation of cell death pathways by morphological and biochemical means.
Results: Extracts of almost all Rhododendron species, when applied at 500 źg/mL, were potent in negatively affecting
both keratinocytes and intestine epithelial cells, except material from R. hippophaeoides var. hippophaeoides. Extracts of
R. minus and R. racemosum were non-toxic towards both mammalian cell types when used at 50 źg/mL, which was
equivalent to their minimal inhibitory concentration against bacteria. At this concentration, leaf extracts from three
other highly potent antimicrobial Rhododendron species proved non-cytotoxic against one or the other mammalian
cell type: Extracts of R. ferrugineum were non-toxic towards IEC6 cells, and extracts of R. rubiginosum as well as
R. concinnum did not affect HaCaT cells. In general, keratinocytes proved more resistant than intestine epithelial cells
against the treatment with compounds contained in Rhododendron leaf extracts.
(Continued on next page)
* Correspondence: k.brix@jacobs-university.de
1
Department of Life Sciences and Chemistry, Jacobs University Bremen,
Campus Ring 1, D-28759 Bremen, Germany
Full list of author information is available at the end of the article
© 2015 Rezk et al. Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0
International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and
reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to
the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver
(http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated.
Rezk et al. BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine (2015) 15:364 Page 2 of 18
(Continued from previous page)
Conclusions: We conclude that leaf extracts from highly potent antimicrobial R. minus and R. racemosum are safe
to use at 50 źg/mL in 24-h incubations with HaCaT keratinocytes and IEC6 intestine epithelial cells in monolayer
cultures. Extracts from R. rubiginosum as well as R. concinnum or R. ferrugineum are applicable to either keratinocytes or
intestinal epithelial cells, respectively. Beyond the scope of the current study, further experiments are required to
identify the specific compounds contained in those Rhododendron leaf extracts that exert antimicrobial activity
while being non-cytotoxic when applied onto human skin or gastrointestinal tract mucosa. Thus, this study supports
the notion that detailed phytochemical profiling and compound identification is needed for characterization of the leaf
extracts from specific Rhododendron species in order to exploit their components as supplementary agents in
antimicrobial phyto-medical treatments.
Keywords: Rhododendron, Bio-active compounds, Cytotoxicity, Mitochondrial activity, Programmed cell death
Background considerations are important, regardless of whether pure
Plant extracts are commonly used in formulations of compounds or crude extracts of an entire plant, or parts
alternative and traditional medicine such as skin lo- thereof, are used for the production of a pharmaceutically
tions, or when used as ingredients in dietary treatments applicable plant ingredient [18].
and teas [1]. Plant-based medications are well-accepted The genus Rhododendron, comprising the species-
by patients and are often preferred over chemically richest group of wooden plants, belongs to the family
produced therapeutics because of their well-known Ericaceae and encompasses about one thousand species:
health-benefitting bio-active ingredients [2 6]. More- the majority of which are indigenous to Asia [19]. In
over, plant-extractable compounds have also gained a ethno-medicine, extracts of Rhododendron have been
lot of attention in conventional medicine. For instance, used traditionally in treating various disorders such as
plant-based drugs are now used for therapeutic treat- inflammatory conditions, common symptoms of cold,
ment of diseases such as cancer and various inflamma- gastrointestinal disorders, skin diseases, or as pain killers
tory disorders [7, 8]. Therefore, knowing and assessing [20]. Recent research highlighted that Rhododendron leaf
the potentials of plant-derived bio-active compounds is extracts might be highly potent and beneficial to health
important for further drug development. This notion is due to properties they contain, such as anti-bacterial
deducible from the increasing interest of the pharma- [21, 22], anti-allergic, and anti-inflammatory [23, 24]
ceutical industry in gaining the rights to identify and agents. The reported usefulness of crude extracts of
exploit plant-borne compounds from species-rich R. ferrugineum and R. anthopogon [20, 25 27] is most
rainforests in countries of tropical and subtropical re- likely due to the presence of terpenoids in high concen-
gions [9 11]. While there is certainly a great potential in trations [25].
identifying plant-derived medication, the challenges Previously, we investigated leaf extracts of 120 different
associated with this venture must also be noted. Some Rhododendron species for their efficacy as antimicrobials
of the current discussion revolving around this topic in killing a variety of Gram-positive and Gram-negative
are: the protection of bio-diversity, acceptance of intel- bacteria [25]. In the current study, extracts of 12 of the
lectual property rights, as well as biosafety of applica- Rhododendron species with highest anti-bacterial poten-
tion [12, 13]. The aim of this study is to establish and cies were applied in different concentrations to monolayer
provide an experimental, cell biological platform that cultures of human HaCaT epidermal keratinocytes and rat
allows for the identification of plant species that should intestine epithelial cell line IEC6. Intestinal epithelial cells
be characterized and assessed in more detail. and keratinocytes are considered to be among the first
So far, roughly 6 % of all higher plant species existing points of contact when drugs are administered orally or
worldwide have been, or are currently being, assessed for applied ectopically, respectively. In general, bio-active
their medicinal potential. In fact, only a minor proportion compounds are considered cytotoxic when they alter
of these plant species have actually been subjected to cellular morphology or metabolism, interfere with the
detailed phytochemical profiling [14 16]. Bio-active com- cytoskeleton or cell adhesion, affect cell proliferation rates
pounds must first be purified before they can be assessed or cell differentiation processes, or initiate programmed
and eventually tested in clinical trials. Of course, the cell death [28]. Different cell types might exhibit differen-
overall aim of the tests would be to ensure the efficacy of tial responses towards a specific compound or plant
the biomolecules in particular therapeutic approaches. extract. Consequently, it is neither sufficient to use only
Simultaneously, drug safety and absence of undesirable one cell line nor to apply just a single cytotoxicity assay in
side-effects are of the highest concern [17]. These any safety assessment study.
Rezk et al. BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine (2015) 15:364 Page 3 of 18
The aim of this study was to assess possible cytotoxic Methanol was evaporated from the extracts using a
effects of antimicrobial Rhododendron leaf extracts on Micro Modulyo lyophilizer (Edwards, Crawley, UK).
mammalian cells in order to identify a potential candi- Stock solutions were prepared by dissolving the resi-
date species for further analysis of safe use. Thus, the dues in 100 % dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) (Carl Roth,
study contributes to on-going investigations on the bio- Karlsruhe, Germany). Prior to the in vitro assays, the
activity potential of plant species such as the Rhododen- samples were mixed with the respective cell culture
dron. Hence, the effects of Rhododendron leaf extracts medium such that the final concentration of DMSO did
on cell survival, metabolism, and growth as well as on not exceed 0.5 % (v/v), and 5, 50, or 500 źg of lyophi-
different cellular structures were monitored in vitro by lized powder per mL culture medium were applied to
an array of cell biological assays employing differentiated confluent IEC6 and HaCaT cell monolayers.
cell lines.
Cell culture
Methods The normal rat small intestine epithelial cell line IEC6
Collection of plant material and leaf extract preparation [29, 30] and the human keratinocyte cell line HaCaT
Fresh leaf material of reliably identified Rhododendron [31, 32], purchased from the European Collection of Cell
species was used in this study (Table 1). The material Cultures (Salisbury, UK), were used throughout this
was collected from January 2012 to December 2013 study. IEC6 cells were grown in Dulbecco s modified
from plants grown in the Rhododendron-Park Bremen Eagle s Medium (DMEM High Glucose) (Lonza Group,
(www.rhododendronparkbremen.de). Each plant spe- Basel, Switzerland) supplemented with 10 % fetal calf
cies was sampled once without considering seasonal serum (FCS) (Perbio Science, Bonn, Germany) and
variations. The identities of the plant species used in 10 źg/mL insulin (Sigma-Aldrich, Steinheim, Germany).
this study (Table 1) have been verified by reference to the IEC6 cells were incubated at 37 °C in a 5 % CO2 atmos-
German Gene Bank Rhododendron Database provided by phere in an incubator (Heraeus, Osterode, Germany).
the Bundessortenamt (www.bundessortenamt.de/rhodo) HaCaT cells were cultured in DMEM containing 10 %
[25]. Material from all plant species used is publicly and FCS and incubated at 37 °C in an 8.4 % CO2 atmos-
freely available from the Rhododendron-Park Bremen phere. Cell cultures were passaged once per week. All
upon request. experiments were performed with cultures at approx.
Leaf material was frozen in liquid nitrogen and powdered 70 % and 95 % confluence for IEC6 and HaCaT cells,
using a KSW 3307 mill (Clatronic, Kempen, Germany). respectively.
Crude extracts were prepared by soaking two grams of
Rhododendron leaf powder in 10 mL of 80 % methanol for Determination of cell viability and proliferative activity by
24 h at 4 °C with constant shaking. Insoluble material was MTT assays
removed by centrifugation at 3,220 g for 30 min at 4 °C, Effects of Rhododendron leaf extracts on the viability
and supernatants were stored at -20 °C for further use. and proliferative activity of cultured IEC6 and HaCaT
Table 1 List of Rhododendron species from which leaves were collected and used to prepare extracts that were screened for exhibiting
cytotoxicity towards intestine epithelial cell cultures and monolayers of keratinocytes
Genebank-No.a Species Name Section Sub-section
100.345 R. ferrugineum L. Rhododendron Rhododendron
100.007 R. ambiguum Hemsley Rhododendron Triflora
NA R. anthopogon Don ssp. anthopogon Betty Graham Pogonanthum -
NA R. hirsutum L. Rhododendron Rhododendron
100.326 R. concinnum Hemsley Rhododendron Triflora
100.322 R. cinnabarinum Hooker Rhododendron Cinnabarina
NA R. racemosum Franchet Rhododendron Scabrifolia
100.404 R. rubiginosum Franchet Rhododendron Heliolepida
100.474 R. xanthostephanum Merrill Rhododendron Tephropepla
100.370 R. minus Michaux Rhododendron Caroliniana
100.392 R. polycladum Franchet Rhododendron Lapponica
100.353 R. hippophaeoides var. hippophaeoides Hutchinson Rhododendron Lapponica
a
Gene bank numbers used in the collection of the Rhododendron-Park Bremen
NA Not a plant of the German Gene Bank Rhododendron but a verified plant of the Rhododendron-Park Bremen
Rezk et al. BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine (2015) 15:364 Page 4 of 18
cells were quantitated using the 3-(4,5-dimethyl- with intact plasma membranes, however, if plasma
thiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) membrane integrity is lost, PI gains access to the nu-
assay (Carl Roth). This test is indicative for mitochon- cleus and forms complexes with the DNA. In contrast,
drial NADH-dependent dehydrogenase activity, which Draq5"! serves as a nuclear counter-stain that trans-
is proportional to both cell viability and proliferation verses the intact plasma membrane and can therefore
rates of treated cultures [33 35]. A total of 1 × 104 be used to determine the total cell number. Special care
cells/well were seeded in single wells of 96-well plates had to be taken when analyzing total cell numbers,
(Greiner, Essen, Germany) and upon reaching the because some plant leaf extracts could have exhibited
desired confluence, the cells were incubated with three anti-adhesive effects such that total cell numbers were
different concentrations of Rhododendron leaf extracts significantly diminished after washing steps. Therefore,
(5, 50, and 500 źg per mL culture medium, not exceed- total cell numbers were determined and reported
ing 0.5 % DMSO in content) for 24 h in complete herein as a measure for anti-adhesive properties of
medium and at standard culture conditions. Incuba- Rhododendron-derived compounds.
tion of cells with culture medium containing DMSO at
a final concentration of 0.5 % (v/v) was used as a negative Phalloidin staining of the filamentous actin cytoskeleton
control. Culture supernatants containing free-floating dead IEC6 and HaCaT cells were grown on cover glasses in
cells were removed at the end of the incubation period, 24-well plates to reach 70 % and 95 % confluence, respect-
replaced with fresh culture medium containing MTT at a ively, and exposed to Rhododendron leaf extracts for 24 h
final concentration of 0.5 % (w/v). The cell layers were then as described above, while 0.5 % DMSO was used as a
further incubated for another four hours. Subsequently, negative control. Cells were washed three times with
culture supernatants were removed, the cells adherent to PBS before fixation in 4 % PFA in 200 mM HEPES
the plate surface were collected in 100 % DMSO and (pH 7.4) at room temperature for 20 min. After
incubated for 15 min at 37 °C to terminate the reaction and fixation, cells were washed with PBS before applying
to dissolve formazan crystals. The absorbance of formazan 0.2 % Triton X-100 in PBS for 5 min at room
formed by Rhododendron leaf extract-treated and non- temperature, followed by several washing steps in PBS.
treated control cell cultures was quantified at 595 nm in Finally, cells were stained for 30 min at room temperature
a microplate reader against the solvent (Tecan Group, with a mixture of 3 źM FITC-labeled phalloidin (Sigma
Männedorf, Switzerland). Percentages of cell viability were Aldrich) and 5 źMDraq5"! in PBS, the latter used as a
calculated from triplicates using Eq. (1): counter-stain of nuclear DNA. Cover glasses were mounted
in Mowiol for subsequent inspection by laser scanning
microscopy (see below).
absorbance of treated cells
% of cell viabilityź 100 ð1Þ
absorbance of control cells
MitoTracker® Red CMXRos staining of the mitochondrial
matrix
Cells were incubated and treated as described above, be-
Propidium iodide staining of nuclei in cells with ruptured fore washing twice in phenol red-free HEPES-buffered
plasma membranes culture medium for 5 min. Subsequently, the cells were
The two cell lines were grown on cover glasses in incubated with phenol red-free culture medium contain-
24-well Bio-One Cellstar plates (Greiner) to reach the ing 20 mM HEPES and 500 nM MitoTracker® Red
desired degree of confluence. Next, cells were incubated CMXRos (Molecular Probes, Oregon, USA) for 45 min
with three different concentrations of Rhododendron at 37 °C followed by several washes. The fluorescent dye
leaf extracts (i.e. 5, 50, or 500 źg/mL) for 24 h as accumulates in the mitochondrial matrix only when an
described above. Subsequently, cells were washed three intact membrane potential, due to active cellular metab-
times with phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) before olism, is present across the inner mitochondrial mem-
being incubated for 45 min in 2 mg/mL propidium brane. Cells were fixed with 4 % PFA in 200 mM HEPES
iodide (PI) (Carl Roth) and 5 źM Draq5"! (Biostatus, (pH 7.4) for 20 min at room temperature, rinsed, and
Leicester, UK) in culture medium at 37 °C. After mounted on microscope slides as described above for
washing three times in PBS, cells were fixed in 4 % subsequent microscopic inspection.
paraformaldehyde (PFA) (Carl Roth) in 200 mM
HEPES (pH 7.4) at room temperature for 20 min. Microscopy techniques
Cells on cover glasses were washed again in PBS and Stained cells were visualized with an LSM 510 confocal
distilled water before mounting them in Mowiol for laser scanning microscope (Carl Zeiss, Jena, Germany) at
subsequent laser scanning microscopy as described excitation wavelengths of 488 nm, 543 nm and 633 nm for
previously [36]. PI is not capable of penetrating cells fluorophore excitation to visualize FITC-phalloidin, PI or
Rezk et al. BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine (2015) 15:364 Page 5 of 18
MitoTracker® Red CMXRos, and Draq5"!, respectively. One-Way ANOVA, and p < 0.05 was considered statisti-
Scans at a resolution of 1024 x1024 pixels were taken in cally significant. CellProfiler software [39] was used to
the line averaging mode and at a pinhole setting of one determine total cell numbers (Draq5"!-positive cells) versus
airy unit. Color coding and image analysis was performed numbers of dead cells (PI-positive cells). This software
by using the LSM 510 software, release 3.2 (Carl Zeiss). was also employed to quantify the MitoTracker® Red
CMXRos and FITC-phalloidin fluorescence signal inten-
Caspase-3 activity assay sities as previously described by us [32].
For IEC6 cells, induction of apoptosis upon incubation
with R. ferrugineum and R. cinnabarinum leaf extracts Results
at the highest concentration, i.e. 500 źg/mL, was evalu- Classification of Rhododendron species based on
ated at different time intervals ranging from 1 to 24 h. antibacterial activities
The apoptosis assay was performed using the EnzChek In order to group the 12 selected Rhododendron species
Caspase-3 assay kit (Invitrogen, Karlsruhe, Germany) [25] according to their antibacterial activities, minimum
detecting activation of procaspase-3 and other Asp- inhibitory concentration (MIC) tests were conducted
Glu-Val-Asp (DEVD)-specific proteases. Lysates of treated against B. subtilis . Accordingly, the plant species were
IEC6 cells and non-treated controls were prepared ac- classified into four major groups: six Rhododendron
cording to the manufacturer s protocol. Following clear- species formed the group with the highest antibacterial
ance by centrifugation, the samples were incubated with activity with an MIC of 50 źg/mL: R. minus, R. racemo-
5 mM Z-DEVD-R110 substrate for 30 min at 4 °C. Lysates sum, R. ferrugineum, R. rubiginosum, R. anthopogon ssp.
of IEC6 cells treated for 4 h at 37 °C with apoptosis- anthopogon, and R. concinnum. Another three species
inducing staurosporin (10 mM) (Sigma-Aldrich) were formed the group with moderately active extracts, with
used as positive controls, whereas no treatment or in- an MIC of 100 źg/mL: R. cinnabarinum, R. hirsutum,
cubation with the solvent served as negative controls. and R. ambiguum. The remaining Rhododendron species
Additionally, staurosporin-treated cells incubated with exhibited lower antibacterial activities with R. xanthoste-
1 mM of Ac-DEVD-CHO for 10 min served as a nega- phanum and R. polycladum having an MIC of 150 źg/mL
tive control since caspase-3 activity is blocked under and R. hippophaeoides var. hippophaeoides requiring
these conditions. The extent of procaspase-3 activa- 300 źg/mL to efficiently produce an inhibition zone for
tion was determined by fluorescence of liberated B. subtilis.
rhodamine upon excitation at 496 nm and reading the
emission at 520 nm, using a microplate reader (Tecan Cell viability and proliferation rates as quantified by the
Group, Männedorf, Switzerland). The values were nor- MTT assay
malized to equal amounts of DNA in the pellets after The effects of leaf extracts prepared from 12 different
lysis, as determined by the Burton assay [37]. Rhododendron species on cell viability and proliferation
rates were initially estimated with the help of the MTT
Determination of minimum inhibitory concentrations assay, as this test allows for a rapid screening of many
The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) was samples. To this end, three different concentrations of
defined as the lowest concentration of Rhododendron leaf Rhododendron leaf extract (5, 50, and 500 źg/mL) were
extract that inhibits visible growth of microorganisms applied to IEC6 and HaCaT cells for 24 h. As demon-
after overnight incubation. The MIC was determined by a strated in Fig. 1, incubation with extracts applied at lower
two-fold dilution assay in Mueller-Hinton broth (MHB) concentrations (5 and 50 źg/mL) revealed no detectable
(Becton Dickinson, Heidelberg, Germany). The Bacillus change in MTT conversion rates of HaCaT cells, while
subtilis strain S168 was tested against 12 Rhododendron the leaf extracts from R. polycladum, R. concinnum, and
crude extracts (Table 1) [25]. All tests were performed in R. xanthostephanum affected IEC6 cellular metabolism
triplicates following the National Center for Clinical negatively (arrows) in comparison to cells that were not
Laboratory Standards recommendations [38]. treated at all, or treated with 0.5 % DMSO, suggesting
that even 5 źg/mL of these extracts caused cytotoxic
Statistical evaluation effects on intestine epithelial cells. Rhododendron leaf
All assays were performed in triplicates and repeated at extracts used at the higher concentration of 500 źg/mL
least three times in independent experiments unless were more effective in reducing the MTT conversion
stated otherwise. All data were expressed as means Ä… ability of the treated cells (Fig. 1). Extracts of R. rubigi-
standard deviation (SD), as determined by using Origin nosum, R. cinnabarinum, and R. ferrugineum exerted
software (MicroCal Software, Northampton, USA). The cytotoxic effects as deduced from the significant de-
profile map shown in Fig. 9 was created using R (RStudio, crease in the ability of both IEC6 and HaCaT cells to
Boston, USA). Levels of significance were calculated by reduce MTT. In addition, samples from R. minus, R.
Rezk et al. BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine (2015) 15:364 Page 6 of 18
Fig. 1 Effects of Rhododendron leaf extracts on IEC6 (a) and HaCaT (b) cells incubated with three different concentrations (5, 50, and 500 źg/mL)
of leaf extracts as indicated. Cell viability and proliferation was analyzed by the MTT assay upon incubation at 37 °C for 24 h. The percentage of
MTT reduction for each extract concentration was normalized to that of the 0.5 % DMSO solvent. Values are given as mean Ä… standard deviations from
three independent experiments, each performed in triplicates. Statistical evaluation was performed by one way ANOVA-analysis; levels of significance
are indicated as *for p < 0.05
polycladum, R. concinnum, R. ambiguum, and R. hirsu- Analysis of plasma membrane integrity
tum induced statistically significant reductions in the In order to verify the initially observed cytotoxicity of
MTT conversion ability of IEC6 cells, but not HaCaT the Rhododendron leaf extracts on IEC6 and HaCaT cell
cells. Interestingly, treatments with leaf extracts of lines, changes in the integrity of the plasma membrane
R. hippophaeoides var. hippophaeoides, R. anthopogon of the cells upon incubation with leaf extracts were
ssp. anthopogon, and R. racemosum did not exhibit tested. For this, PI acquisition was assayed, which occurs
any significant alterations in metabolic activities or cell only in those cells that feature ruptured plasma mem-
viability highlighting their potential non-cytotoxicity branes. Cell staining with Draq5"! allowed an estimation
(Fig. 1). of the total cell number. The results summarized in
Rezk et al. BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine (2015) 15:364 Page 7 of 18
Table 2, Fig. 2, and Additional file 1: Figure S1 demon- with 50 źg/mL leaf extracts of R. polycladum, R. concin-
strated that incubation of IEC6 cells with 5 and 50 źg/ num, R. anthopogon ssp. anthopogon, and R. hirsutum
mL of most Rhododendron leaf extracts did neither resulted in a significant reduction in the total cell number
significantly reduce the total cell number nor affect plasma as compared to controls (Fig. 2a). Application of the
membrane integrity. However, incubation of IEC6 cells highest concentration of the majority of leaf extracts
Table 2 Total cell numbers and percentages of dead cells of IEC6 and HaCaT cell cultures which were treated with three different
concentrations of Rhododendron leaf extracts as indicated
Treatments Conc. źg/mL IEC 6 HaCaT
Total cell numbers (Draq5"!) Dead cells (%) Total cell numbers (Draq5"!) Dead cells (%)
R. hippophaeoides var. hippophaeoides 500 99 Ä… 46 81 Ä… 16 212 Ä… 57 0 Ä… 0
50 494 Ä… 188 2 Ä… 0.6 283 Ä… 123 0.2 Ä… 0.2
5 297 Ä… 139 1 Ä… 1 328 Ä… 138 2 Ä… 2
R. minus 500 74 Ä… 48 79 Ä… 19 221 Ä… 86 83 Ä… 12
50 497 Ä… 106 0.4 Ä… 0.4 348 Ä… 113 0.4 Ä… 0.5
5 683 Ä… 60 0.8 Ä… 0.2 372 Ä… 155 0.8 Ä… 0.8
R. rubiginosum 500 288 Ä… 120 97 Ä… 3 253 Ä… 122 4 Ä… 0.7
50 551 Ä… 147 0.9 Ä… 1 413 Ä… 197 0.9 Ä… 0.9
5 672 Ä… 101 0.5 Ä… 0.4 390 Ä… 41 0 Ä… 0
R. cinnabarinum 500 204 Ä… 40 100 Ä… 0 112 Ä… 23 94 Ä… 7
50 475 Ä… 183 0.8 Ä… 0.8 448 Ä… 77 2 Ä… 1
5 481 Ä… 128 1 Ä… 1 552 Ä… 68 2 Ä… 0.5
R. ferrugineum 500 33 Ä… 11 100 Ä… 0 490 Ä… 122 85 Ä… 15
50 522 Ä… 62 1 Ä… 0.6 287 Ä… 109 1 Ä… 1
5 439 Ä… 85 2 Ä… 2 481 Ä… 59 1 Ä… 1
R. polycladum 500 99 Ä… 25 100 Ä… 0 204 Ä… 62 13 Ä… 22
50 274 Ä… 106 1 Ä… 1 204 Ä… 72 1 Ä… 1
5 384 Ä… 104 0.9 Ä… 0.5 274 Ä… 26 0 Ä… 0
R. concinnum 500 304 Ä… 109 100 Ä… 0 143 Ä… 58 93 Ä… 6
50 252 Ä… 58 45 Ä… 44 320 Ä… 66 0.5 Ä… 0.1
5 586 Ä… 160 0.9 Ä… 0.8 260 Ä… 108 0 Ä… 0
R. xanthostephanum 500 211 Ä… 58 12 Ä… 4 127 Ä… 56 0 Ä… 0
50 408 Ä… 68 0 Ä… 0 181 Ä… 70 0 Ä… 0
5 460 Ä… 115 0.7 Ä… 0.6 319 Ä… 89 0.3 Ä… 0.3
R. anthopogon ssp. anthopogon 500 164 Ä… 41 100 Ä… 0 196 Ä… 50 90 Ä… 4
50 235 Ä… 72 23 Ä… 9 370 Ä… 153 1 Ä… 1
5 578 Ä… 164 2 Ä… 1 395 Ä… 157 4 Ä… 5
R. ambiguum 500 666 Ä… 220 99 Ä… 2 179 Ä… 60 0 Ä… 0
50 439 Ä… 154 1 Ä… 1 327 Ä… 82 0.5 Ä… 0.6
5 535 Ä… 119 0.7 Ä… 0.7 357 Ä… 150 0 Ä… 0
R. hirsutum 500 189 Ä… 65 99 Ä… 0.6 270 Ä… 113 98 Ä… 0.7
50 267 Ä… 64 11 Ä… 15 258 Ä… 109 0.5 Ä… 0.1
5 271 Ä… 147 1 Ä… 0.5 298 Ä… 67 0 Ä… 0
R. racemosum 500 224 Ä… 54 81 Ä… 23 123 Ä… 45 94 Ä… 3
50 400 Ä… 262 0.4 Ä… 0.6 211 Ä… 33 0 Ä… 0
5 471 Ä… 183 1 Ä… 0.7 225 Ä… 79 0 Ä… 0
Data are given as means Ä… standard deviation
Rezk et al. BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine (2015) 15:364 Page 8 of 18
Fig. 2 Effects of Rhododendron leaf extracts on the cell numbers of IEC6 (a) and HaCaT (b) cells after 24 h incubation at 37 °C with three different
concentrations (5, 50, and 500 źg/mL) of leaf extracts as indicated. The total number of cells as determined by Draq5"! staining reflects
the effects of leaf extracts on cell viability and adhesion since only monolayer-associated cells were stained and counted in this assay.
Values are given as mean Ä… standard deviations from three independent experiments, each performed in triplicates. Statistical evaluation
was performed by one way ANOVA-analysis; levels of significance are indicated as *for p<0.05
resulted in a significant decrease in the total cell number membrane rupturing of the majority of remaining cells,
and a dramatic decrease in plasma membrane integrity irrespective of the leaf extract used. Interestingly, the leaf
(Table 2, Additional file 1: Figure S1). This suggested that extract of R. ambiguum had a remarkably divergent effect
the observed effects on IEC6 cell cultures were likely due on IEC6 cells as opposed to all other extracts at
to both, massive cell de-adhesion and cell death via plasma 500 źg/mL: although almost all cells had lost their
Rezk et al. BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine (2015) 15:364 Page 9 of 18
plasma membrane integrity, they remained adherent to hippophaeoides var. hippophaeoides, R. xanthostephanum,
the bottom of the incubation vessels (Additional file 1: R. hirsutum, and R. racemosum (Fig. 3a). Alterations in
Figure S1, Table 2), indicating that the extract of mitochondrial structure of IEC6 cells treated with leaf
R. ambiguum potentially induces effects different from extracts were frequently observed at all three concentration
those of the other species. (Additional file 3: Figure S3). However, IEC6 cells treated
HaCaT keratinocytes exposed to Rhododendron leaf with 5 or 50 źg/mL extracts from R. hippophaeoides var.
extracts at any of the concentrations tested proved more hippophaeoides, R. xanthostephanum, R. hirsutum, and
tolerant than IEC6 cells under the same conditions. The R. racemosum did not show significant differences in the
total cell number was only significantly diminished upon metabolic activity and mitochondrial structure when
incubation of HaCaT cells with 500 źg/mL leaf extracts compared to controls (Figs. 3a and 4a).
from four Rhododendron species, i.e. R. cinnabarinum, Effects of Rhododendron leaf extracts on mitochondrial
R.concinnum, R. xanthostephanum, and R. racemosum structure and metabolic activity, i.e. staining intensities,
(Fig. 2b, Additional file 2: Figure S2). Three out of those were much less pronounced in HaCaT keratinocytes
treatments followed the previously observed major (Figs. 3b and 4b, Additional file 3: Figure S3b). Excep-
trend: A combination of cell de-adhesion and plasma tions were observed when HaCaT cell cultures were
membrane disruption of HaCaT cells was observed when treated with high concentrations of leaf extracts pre-
a high concentration of plant extract was applied pared from R. minus, R. cinnabarinum, R. ferrugi-
(Table 2). Interestingly, the extract of R. xanthostepha- neum, R. concinnum, R. anthopogon ssp. anthopogon,
num led to de-adhesion but not to disruption of plasma and R. ambiguum (Fig. 3b) with mitochondria that no
membrane integrity. Irrespective of the level of reduc- longer appeared elongated but were rounded up
tion in total cell number caused by 500 źg/mL of extract (Fig. 4b, Additional file 3: Figure S3b).
(Fig. 2b), five out of the 12 Rhododendron leaf extracts
did not induce plasma membrane rupture in HaCaT cells Analysis of the actin cytoskeleton of Rhododendron
(Table 2). This result indicated significant differences in extract-treated cells
the susceptibility of the two different cell types to the Next, we inspected the filamentous actin cytoskeleton of
tested Rhododendron leaf extracts. Rhododendron leaf extract-treated IEC6 and HaCaT cells
as a measure for the preservation of the overall cellular
Effects of Rhododendron leaf extracts on mitochondrial architecture. With regard to the intensity of FITC-
membrane potential phalloidin staining of the F-actin system of both IEC6
Changes of the mitochondrial membrane potential of and HaCaT cells, the analyses revealed mostly mild
IEC6 and HaCaT cells, induced by Rhododendron effects of the Rhododendron leaf extracts when applied
leaf extracts were determined by MitoTracker® Red at concentrations of 5 or 50 źg/mL (Fig. 5). Likewise,
CMXRos. For this, fluorescence intensity of stained when morphologically inspecting the cytoskeleton of
mitochondria was quantified by measuring the average either cell type, no visible changes to the cortical F-actin
intensity over arbitrarily chosen inspection areas (Fig. 3). system were caused by the lower concentrations of leaf
The measured staining intensity is directly proportional extracts. The corresponding structures remained detect-
to the extent of metabolically active mitochondria visual- able underneath the plasma membranes of most cells
ized by fluorescence. In addition, Rhododendron leaf (Fig. 6). Conversely, IEC6 cells exposed to any of the
extract-treated and MitoTracker® Red CMXRos-stained concentrations of R. ambiguum leaf extracts showed a
cells were inspected under a fluorescence microscope in significant decrease in the intensity of phalloidin-
accordance with morphological criteria that allow for staining (Fig. 5a). Five of the Rhododendron leaf extracts
the determination of the shape of mitochondria (Fig. 4, applied at the highest concentration, namely R. cinna-
Additional file 3: Figure S3). Typically, mitochondria of barinum, R. ferrugineum, R. concinnum, R. xanthoste-
metabolically active, well-adherent IEC6 cells with an phanum, and R. anthopogon ssp. anthopogon, resulted in
intact cytoskeleton exhibited an elongated appearance a significantly reduced staining intensity of the filament-
(Fig. 4a, control), while the mitochondria of HaCaT ous actin system in both cell lines (Fig. 6). In contrast,
keratinocytes appeared oval or doughnut-like in shape the extracts of R. minus, R. rubiginosum, and R. polycla-
(Fig. 4b, control). dum exerted negative effects on the staining of F-actin
IEC6 cells incubated with leaf extracts from all Rhodo- in IEC6 cells only (Fig. 6a). This suggested a rather
dendron species at the highest concentration were heterogeneous spectrum of effects on the actin cyto-
dramatically affected with regard to the mitochondrial skeleton by various Rhododendron extracts. No particu-
membrane potential as deduced from the drastically lar morphological phenotype could be observed in
reduced MitoTracker® Red CMXRos staining although association with Rhododendron extract-treated HaCaT
effects were somewhat milder for leaf extracts from R. keratinocytes (Fig. 6b, Additional file 4: Figure S4).
Rezk et al. BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine (2015) 15:364 Page 10 of 18
Fig. 3 Effects of Rhododendron leaf extracts on the mitochondrial membrane potential of IEC6 (a) and HaCaT (b) after 24 h incubation at 37 °C
with three different concentrations (5, 50, and 500 źg/mL) of leaf extract as indicated. The intensity of MitoTracker® Red CMXRos signal reflects
the accumulation of the dye within the mitochondrial matrix, which depends on an intact inner mitochondrial membrane potential, and thus on
the metabolic activity of the cells. Values are given as mean Ä… standard deviations from three independent experiments, each performed in triplicates.
Statistical evaluation was performed by one way ANOVA-analysis; levels of significance are indicated as *for p < 0.05
Inspection of sub-cellular architecture of floating cells to tolerate exposure to cytotoxic agents only to some
that detached from monolayers extent. Because the above assays were technically re-
The findings detailed above suggested that IEC6 and stricted to adherent cells in monolayers, we next ana-
HaCaT cells remained either adherent within or to the lyzed the fraction of free-floating cells which detached
monolayers, or that they detached upon incubation with during treatment with Rhododendron leaf extracts using
specific Rhododendron leaf extracts. Such observations the same staining methods as described above. There-
could be falsely interpreted as both cell types being able fore, Draq5"! staining additionally served to examine the
Rezk et al. BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine (2015) 15:364 Page 11 of 18
Fig. 4 Morphological changes of mitochondria in IEC6 and HaCaT cells after 24 h exposure to three different concentrations (5, 50 and 500 źg/mL) of
Rhododendron leaf extracts. Confocal fluorescence images of IEC6 (a) and HaCaT cells (b) labeled with MitoTracker® Red CMXRos. Cells treated
with 0.5 % DMSO were used as controls. Also depicted are cells incubated with extracts from R. hippophaeoides var. hippophaeoides (A), R.
xanthostephanum (B), R. hirsutum (C) and R. racemosum (D). Bars represent 20 źm
status of nuclear DNA and to identify morphological namely R. hippophaeoides var. hippophaeoides, R. cinna-
alterations of the nuclei, such as those that are typical barinum, R. ferrugineum, R. xanthostephanum, and R.
for cells undergoing programmed cell death. racemosum induced signs closely related to the classical
Treatment of IEC6 cells with 500 źg/mL leaf extracts symptoms of programmed cell death apoptosis where
from R. cinnabarinum and subsequent analysis of the the treated cells also exhibited typical phenotypes like
detached cells revealed nuclear condensation, cell shrink- formation of plasma membrane blebs.
age, rounding-up, loss of contacts with adjacent cells, HaCaT cells too showed cellular changes indicative of
formation of typical membrane blebs and occurrence cell death upon exposure to 500 źg/mL Rhododendron
of apoptotic bodies (Fig. 7a). These results suggested leaf extracts. However, these were different from the
that leaf extracts of this particular plant species may phenotypes observed in treated IEC6 cell cultures.
induce apoptosis. HaCaT cells treated with leaf extracts from either R.
However, IEC6 cells exposed to 500 źg/mL R. ferrugi- cinnabarinum or R. ferrugineum displayed signs of the
neum leaf extracts became pycnotic and the actin final stages of cell death, reminiscent of cornification,
filaments formed a ring surrounding the nucleus. In because they exhibited intense PI staining throughout
addition, IEC6 cells treated with leaf extracts from R. the nuclei and the cytoplasm, while some cells had lost
minus, R. rubiginosum, and R. ambiguum showed differ- their nuclei altogether (Fig. 7b, G and H).
ent stages of chromatin condensation and shrinkage of Moreover, exposure of HaCaT cells to R. minus, R.
the nuclei (Fig. 7). Thus, five Rhododendron leaf extracts, concinnum, and R. anthopogon ssp. anthopogon induced
Rezk et al. BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine (2015) 15:364 Page 12 of 18
Fig. 5 Effects of Rhododendron leaf extracts on the F-actin cytoskeleton of IEC6 and HaCaT cells upon incubation with three different concentrations
(5, 50, and 500 źg/mL) of leaf extract for 24 h. The intensity of the phalloidin signal in IEC6 (a) and HaCaT cells (b) reflects F-actin presence,
which maintains the cellular architecture. Values are given as mean Ä… standard deviations from three independent experiments, each performed in
triplicates. Statistical evaluation was performed by one way ANOVA-analysis; levels of significance are indicated as *for p<0.05
changes that featured shrinkage of nuclei and chromatin additional apoptosis-proving assay. Besides some of the
condensation (Fig. 7b, I). above noted symptoms, one definitive characteristic of
apoptosis is the activation of procaspase-3. Therefore, a
Investigation of apoptotic cell death pathways through caspase-3 activity assay was applied to all treatments of
determination of procaspase-3 activation IEC6 cells. Incubation of the cells with 500 źg/mL leaf
In order to substantiate the interpretation of some of the extracts from any of the 12 Rhododendron species
observed morphological changes induced by specific indeed induced apoptosis as evidenced by a significant
Rhododendron leaf extracts, the cells grown in mono- increase in the levels of caspase-3 activity (data not
layers and treated with the extracts were subjected to an shown). There was no significant activation of procaspase-
Rezk et al. BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine (2015) 15:364 Page 13 of 18
Fig. 6 Morphological changes of F-actin structures in IEC6 and HaCaT cells after 24 h exposure to three different concentrations (5, 50 and
500 źg/mL) of Rhododendron leaf extracts. Confocal fluorescence images of IEC6 (a) and HaCaT cells (b) labeled with phalloidin (green) and
Draq5"! (blue). Cells treated with 0.5 % DMSO served as controls for cells treated with leaf extracts of R. hippophaeoides var. hippophaeoides
(A), R. xanthostephanum (B), R. hirsutum (C) and R. racemosum (D). Bars represent 20 źm
3 when IEC6 cells were treated with 5 or 50 źg/mL of Summarizing integration of the results achieved with a
all leaf extracts prepared from Rhododendron species. variety of cell toxicity assays
Interestingly, cells treated with extracts from R. cinna- The partially complex data acquired herein with different
barinum and R. ferrugineum at concentrations of cell toxicity analysis assays are summarized by grouping
500 źg/mL clearly exhibited phenotypic changes char- the 12 Rhododendron species according to their antibac-
acteristic to apoptosis (Fig. 7). Thus, we selected the terial effectiveness with respective MICs of 50, 100, 150,
leaf extracts of these two Rhododendron species to or 300 źg/ml, and qualitatively comparing their effects
analyze procaspase-3 activation in free-floating IEC6 against both cell types (Fig. 9). In general, most Rhododen-
cells in a time-dependent manner (Fig. 8). The results dron leaf extracts exerted more pronounced effects on
revealed a steady increase in caspase-3 activity levels IEC6 intestine epithelial cells as compared to HaCaT
until 12 h of treatment with extracts of R. cinnabari- keratinocytes, when applied at high concentrations
num, and to a five-fold lesser extent upon treatment (500 źg/mL). R. hippophaeoides var. hippophaeoides,
with R. ferrugineum extracts. However, caspase-3 which exhibited the lowest antibacterial effect, also proved
activity decreased during the next 12 h. These results to be least toxic towards both mammalian cell types. A
argue that components contained in Rhododendron leaf total of five Rhododendron extracts with high antibacterial
extracts induce apoptosis in IEC6 cells when applied in potential (MIC of 50 źg/mL) did not reveal cytotoxicity
high enough concentrations. against the mammalian cell lines in any of the tested
Rezk et al. BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine (2015) 15:364 Page 14 of 18
Fig. 7 Plasma membrane integrity and cell death by apoptosis as induced by a 24 h-exposure of IEC6 cells and HaCaT keratinocytes to
500 źg/mL of specific Rhododendron leaf extracts. Merged micrographs taken with a confocal laser scanning microscope depict IEC6 (a; panels A-E)
and HaCaT cells (b; panels F-J). Violet signals in merged images are due to overlapping red, PI-derived signals, in cells with ruptured
plasma membranes, and blue, Draq5"! staining of nuclei in all cells. Pictures A and F are control cells treated with 0.5 % DMSO, while
cells in all other panels were incubated with extracts from R. cinnabarinum (B and G), R. ferrugineum (C and H), R. minus (D and I) and R.
hippophaeoides var. hippophaeoides (E and J). Bars represent 50 źm
Fig. 8 Detection of caspase-3 activity in IEC6 cells. Cells were treated with 500 źg/mL of leaf extracts from R. cinnabarinum (a) and R. ferrugineum
(b) for the indicated time intervals. Reactions were carried out at room temperature and fluorescence was measured in a fluorescence microplate
reader using 496 nm for excitation and emission was detected at 520 nm. Non-treated cells and cells treated with DMSO (0.5 %) were used as negative
controls, while staurosporine (10 źg/mL) treatment was used as a positive control (apoptosis inducer). Values are given as mean ą standard
deviations from three independent experiments, each performed in triplicates. Statistical evaluation was performed by one way ANOVA-analysis; levels
of significance are indicated as *for p < 0.05
Rezk et al. BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine (2015) 15:364 Page 15 of 18
Fig. 9 Profile map summarizing the results of cell biological assessment assays, combining the effects of Rhododendron crude extracts against B.
subtilis depicted by minimum inhibitory concentration. The twelve Rhododendron species were classified into four groups (i.e. 50, 100, 150, and
300 źg/mL) according to the MIC results (black vertical line). Three concentrations (5, 50, and 500 źg/mL) of Rhododendron crude extracts were
applied to the two different cell lines for 24 h representing low, medium, and high antimicrobial activity, respectively. The grey shading represents the
toxicity that Rhododendron crude extracts exerted on mammalian cells, i.e. non-toxic extracts are depicted in light grey, and cytotoxic extracts
are shown by dark grey boxes. Panel (a) represents the results of IEC6 cells for the assays on cell viability and proliferation rates (A), plasma membrane
integrity (B), cellular architecture (C), total cell numbers (D), and cellular metabolism (E). Panel (b) represents the corresponding results for HaCaT cells
assays when applied at 50 źg/mL, indicating that these ex- treat hypertension, and Rhododendron cp paste used
tracts are unlikely to harm mammalian cells while killing to relieve pain in arthritis [10]. In addition, only few
bacterial cells. Thus, these five extracts are the candidates in vitro and in vivo studies with specific Rhododen-
to be further assessed for possibly containing bio-active dron extracts and compounds isolated thereof have
compounds with antimicrobial potencies, while still prov- been reported that validated plant extracts as being useful
ing safe to be applied onto epidermal or intestine mucosal in traditional remedies [20]. Importantly, plants of the
cell monolayers. The corresponding plant species were R. genus Rhododendron are more commonly used as alterna-
minus, R. racemosum, R. ferrugineum, R. rubiginosum, and tive medicine in the geographic regions of their natural
R. concinnum. Interestingly, only the extracts of R. minus habitats, i.e., Nepal, Northeastern India, Western and
and R. racemosum proved to be non-cytotoxic to both in- Central China, or Indonesia [20]. This may be due to the
testine epithelial cells and keratinocytes (Fig. 9), suggesting fact that the precise chemical composition of medicinal
they are the most promising candidates for future investi- formulations is often not very well defined [40, 41]. How-
gations on the search for optimized antibiotics in bio- ever, Rhododendron plants are known to synthesize a large
active plant extract and, therefore, to be used for the iden- number of chemical compounds, some of which exhibit
tification and purification of specific compounds derived attested pharmacological activities [42 45]. Several of
from Rhododendron. these chemical compounds have been identified to belong
to the pro-anthocyanidins, polyphenols, or terpenoids
which are typically synthesized by plants reacting in
Discussion defense to pathogenic infection or inflictions caused by
To date, there are only few medicinal formulations herbivores [46, 47].
on the market that contain compounds derived from Not surprisingly, various plant-derived compounds
Rhododendron. These comprise Rhomitoxin used to exert severe cytotoxic or mutagenic effects when applied
Rezk et al. BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine (2015) 15:364 Page 16 of 18
to animal cells and tissues [48, 49]. Intoxication of domes- cytotoxic agents was observed by us previously when
ticated or wild animals feeding on Rhododendron plants studying dust exposure [32]. This remarkable feature of
have been repeatedly reported and were linked to the keratinocytes might be due to the specific lipid compos-
presence of grayano-toxins [50 52]. Therefore, a compre- ition of their membranes and their ability to build a
hensive number of cytotoxicity studies involving mamma- stratified epithelium when exposed to air during cornifica-
lian cells or tissue cultures must be conducted before a tion [32, 57, 58].
given extract or a defined Rhododendron-derived com-
pound can eventually be considered for testing on animal
Conclusion
models, or even enter clinical trials [53, 54].
Using a comprehensive approach, the cytotoxicity of
To the best of our knowledge, none of the previous
those Rhododendron species that had previously been
studies had comprehensively analyzed the cytotoxicity of a
shown to exhibit the highest antibacterial activities was
group of pharmaceutically interesting Rhododendron
determined. As such, we managed to continue our on-
species. Consequently, the current study introduces a
going approach in identifying pharmaceutically feasible
multi-facetted approach, consisting of five different cytotox-
antibiotics or lead structures. Utilizing two tester cell
icity assays, in order to investigate the effects of Rhododen-
lines as relevant models for the envisioned ectopic or
dron leaf extracts on cellular structure, metabolic activity,
oral treatment and applying several different cell bio-
and viability of two different types of mammalian cells.
logical assays, proved to be a suitable combination of
The results obtained herein show that treating IEC6
screening tools. Two out of the 12 Rhododendron spe-
and HaCaT cells with low concentrations of leaf extracts
cies with antibacterial properties exhibit the desired
prepared from any of the 12 Rhododendron species
traits: the extracts of R. minus and R. racemosum were
exhibited rather mild or no cytotoxic effects, whereas
both non-cytotoxic at a concentration at where they
the use of high concentrations (500 źg/mL) resulted in a
efficiently produced an inhibition zone for B. subtilis.
rather expected and remarkable cytotoxicity. A total of
Furthermore, we could conclude that Rhododendron
five Rhododendron species exhibited high antibacterial
leaf extracts induced apoptosis, as evidenced by typical
activities with MICs of 50 źg/mL and proved to be non-
alterations of the cellular phenotypes (chromatin con-
cytotoxic at this concentration. Interestingly, extracts of
densation and formation of plasma membrane blebs) as
R. minus and R. racemosum were non-toxic to either cell
well as by the increasing levels of active caspase-3 when
lines, which makes them promising candidates for future
cells were exposed to higher extract concentrations. In
studies. In contrast, incubation of either of the two cell
the future, we will extend our current study in order to
lines with 500 źg/mL of the other Rhododendron leaf
determine whether the specific apoptosis-inducing ef-
extracts resulted in severe structural and functional al-
fects of R. cinnabarinum and R. ferrugineum can be used
terations often associated with signs of apoptosis. Our
to selectively target cancer cells, such as colorectal car-
study thus confirmed that simultaneous analysis of several,
cinoma cells.
albeit partially unlinked or only indirectly linked cellular
In our future research, we will focus on phyto-chemically
parameters, is a convenient tool to separate potentially
identifying the actual active compounds present in the leaf
cytotoxic extracts from their safe-to-use Rhododendron
extracts derived from different Rhododendron species. We
extracts counterparts, thus overcoming technical short-
plan to determine the IC 50 values and to study their po-
comings of previous studies aiming at high-throughput
tential cytotoxic effects through a repertoire of different
screening.
methods similar to the cell biological screening tool box
Our results demonstrated that the incubation of cells
laid out in the current study.
with high concentrations of Rhododendron leaf extracts
induced apoptosis specifically in intestine epithelial cells.
Interestingly, only two extracts, namely those of R. cin-
Additional files
nabarinum and R. ferrugineum, shared a similar pattern
of cytotoxicity in all assays tested in this study. Leaf
Additional file 1: Figure S1. Overview of plasma membrane integrity
extracts of these two Rhododendron species were capable
and apoptotic cell death induced by 24h exposure of IEC6 cells to three
different concentrations (5, 50, and 500 źg/mL) of Rhododendron leaf
of inducing procaspase-3 activation prominently in IEC6
extracts. Single channel fluorescence, phase contrast and merged
cells. The results of this study concur with other studies
micrographs taken with a confocal laser scanning microscope. Violet
that have shown several secondary metabolic com- signals in merged pictures are due to overlapping red, PI-derived signals
with blue Draq5"! staining of the nuclei. Cells treated with 0.5 % DMSO
pounds from Rhododendron species to induce apoptosis
served as controls, A) R. hippophaeoides var. hippophaeoides, B) R. minus,
in cultures of different mammalian cell lines [55, 57].
C) R. rubiginosum, D) R. cinnabarinum, E) R. ferrugineum, F) R. polycladum, G)
Overall, keratinocytes were more resistant to cyto- R. concinnum, H) R. xanthostephanum, I) R. anthopogon ssp. anthopogon, J)
R. ambiguum, K) R. hirsutum, and L) R. racemosum. Bar represents 250 źm.
toxicity exerted upon incubation with Rhododendron leaf
(TIFF 6203 kb)
extracts than IEC6 cells. Resistance of HaCaT cells against
Rezk et al. BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine (2015) 15:364 Page 17 of 18
5. Farnsworth NR, D. Soejarto. Global importance of medicinal plants.
Additional file 2: Figure S2. Overview of plasma membrane integrity
The conservation of medicinal plants 1991:p. 25 51.
and apoptotic cell death induced by 24h exposure of HaCaT keratinocytes
6. Kim H-S. Do not put too much value on conventional medicines.
to three different concentrations (5, 50, and 500 źg/mL) of Rhododendron
J Ethnopharmacol. 2005;100(1 2):37 9.
leaf extracts. Single channel fluorescence, phase contrast and merged
7. Cragg GM, Newman DJ. Plants as a source of anti-cancer agents.
micrographs taken with a confocal laser scanning microscope. Violet signals
J Ethnopharmacol. 2005;100(1 2):72 9.
in merged pictures are due to overlapping red, PI-derived signals with blue
8. Chicca A, Pellati F, Adinolfi B, Matthias A, Massarelli I, Benvenuti S, et al.
Draq5"! staining of the nuclei. Cells treated with 0.5 % DMSO served
Cytotoxic activity of polyacetylenes and polyenes isolated from roots of
as controls, A) R. hippophaeoides var. hippophaeoides, B) R. minus, C)
Echinacea pallida. Br J Pharmacol. 2008;153(5):879 85.
R. rubiginosum, D) R. cinnabarinum, E) R. ferrugineum, F) R. polycladum,
9. De Silva T. Industrial utilization of medicinal plants in developing countries.
G) R. concinnum, H) R. xanthostephanum, I) R. anthopogon ssp. anthopogon,
Rome: Medicinal plants for forest conservation and health care FAO; 1997.
J) R. ambiguum, K) R. hirsutum, and L) R. racemosum. Bar represents 250 źm.
p. 34 44.
(TIFF 6203 kb)
10. Fabricant DS, Farnsworth NR. The value of plants used in traditional medicine
for drug discovery. Environ Health Perspect. 2001;109 Suppl 1:69 75.
Additional file 3: Figure S3. Overview of mitochondrial morphology
11. Chichilnisky, G. Property rights on biodiversity and the pharmaceutical
in IEC6 and HaCaT cells after a 24h-exposure to three different concentrations
industry. Available at SSRN 1374617 1993.
(5, 50 and 500 źg/mL) of Rhododendron leaf extracts. Confocal fluorescence
images of IEC6 (a, left) and HaCaT (b, right) cells labeled with MitoTracker® 12. King SR, Carlson TJ, Moran K. Biological diversity, indigenous knowledge,
drug discovery and intellectual property rights: creating reciprocity and
Red CMXRos. Cells treated with 0.5 % DMSO served as controls, A)
maintaining relationships. J Ethnopharmacol. 1996;51(1 3):45 57.
R. hippophaeoides var. hippophaeoides, B) R. minus, C) R. rubiginosum, D)
13. Kartal M. Intellectual property protection in the natural product drug
R. cinnabarinum, E) R. ferrugineum, F) R. polycladum, G) R. concinnum, H)
R. xanthostephanum, I) R. anthopogon ssp. anthopogon, J) R. ambiguum, discovery, traditional herbal medicine and herbal medicinal products.
Phytother Res. 2007;21(2):113 9.
K) R. hirsutum, and L) R. racemosum. Bars represent 50 źm. (TIFF 11640 kb)
14. Cronquist A. The evolution and classification of flowering plants. Bronx, New
Additional file 4: Figure S4. Overview of the structure of the F-actin
York: New York Botanical Garden; 1968.
system in IEC6 and HaCaT cells after a 24h-exposure to three different
15. Palombo EA. Traditional medicinal plant extracts and natural products with
concentrations (5, 50 and 500 źg/mL) of Rhododendron leaf extracts.
activity against oral bacteria: potential application in the prevention and
Confocal fluorescence images of IEC6 (a, left) and HaCaT (b, right) labeled
treatment of oral diseases. Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative
with phalloidin (green) and Draq5"! (blue). Cells treated with 0.5 % DMSO
Medicine. 2011;2011:680354.
served as controls, A) R. hippophaeoides var. hippophaeoides, B) R. minus,
16. Yassin GH, Koek JH, Jayaraman S, Kuhnert N. Identification of novel homologous
C) R. rubiginosum, D) R. cinnabarinum, E) R. ferrugineum, F) R. polycladum,
series of polyhydroxylated theasinensins and theanaphthoquinones in the SII
G) R. concinnum, H) R. xanthostephanum, I) R. anthopogon ssp. anthopogon,
fraction of black tea thearubigins using ESI/HPLC tandem mass spectrometry.
J) R. ambiguum, K) R. hirsutum, and L) R. racemosum. Bars represent 50 źm.
J Agric Food Chem. 2014;62(40):9848 59.
(TIFF 8731 kb)
17. Elliott M, Liu Y. The nine rights of medication administration: an overview.
Br J Nurs. 2010;19(5):300 5.
18. Tam TW, Liu R, Saleem A, Arnason JT, Krantis A, Haddad PS. The effect
Competing interests
of Cree traditional medicinal teas on the activity of human cytochrome
The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
P450-mediated metabolism. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;155(1):841 6.
19. Tiwari ON, Chauhan UK. Genus Rhododendron status in Sikkim Himalaya:
Authors contributions
an assessment. J Am Rhododendron Soc. 2005;59:147 53.
AR designed experiments, conducted the experimental work and the
20. Popescu R, Kopp B. The genus Rhododendron: an ethnopharmacological
analysis, and contributed to manuscript writing; AH and WJ contributed to
and toxicological review. J Ethnopharmacol. 2013;147(1):42 62.
the experimental work presented in Figs. 4, 6 and 7; HS collected, identified,
21. Shakeel-U-Rehman, Khan R, Bhat KA, Raja AF, Shawl AS, Alam MS. Isolation,
and prepared plant material. MU and KBr designed the study, supervised
characterisation and antibacterial activity studies of coumarins from
the work, discussed the results, and contributed to manuscript writing.
Rhododendron lepidotum Wall. ex G. Don, Ericaceae. Revista Brasileira de
All authors read and approved the final manuscript.
Farmacognosia, 2010. 20:886 90.
22. Baral B, Vaidya GS, Maharjan BL, Da Silva JAT. Phytochemical and antimicrobial
Acknowledgements
characterization of rhododendron anthopogon from high Nepalese
This study was financially supported by the Stiftung Bremer
Himalaya. Botanica Lithuanica. 2015;20(2):142 52.
Rhododendronpark. The authors are particularly grateful to late Wolfgang
23. Kupeli E, Tatli II, Akdemir ZS, Yesilada E. Bioassay-guided isolation of
Klunker for his enthusiastic support. We would like to thank Maren Rehders
anti-inflammatory and antinociceptive glycoterpenoids from the flowers of
for expert help with cell culture experiments, as well as Maria Qatato and
Verbascum lasianthum Boiss. ex Bentham.
Daniel Boland for proofreading the manuscript.
J Ethnopharmacol. 2007;110(3):444 50.
24. Nisar M, Ali S, Muhammed N, Gillani SN, Shah MR, Khan H, et al. Antinociceptive
Author details
and anti-inflammatory potential of Rhododendron arboreum bark. Toxicol Ind
1
Department of Life Sciences and Chemistry, Jacobs University Bremen,
Health. 2014. Epub ahead of print.
2
Campus Ring 1, D-28759 Bremen, Germany. Stiftung Bremer
25. Rezk A, Nolzen J, Schepker H, Albach DC, Brix K, Ullrich MS. Phylogenetic
Rhododendronpark, Deliusweg 40, D-28359 Bremen, Germany.
spectrum and analysis of antibacterial activities of leaf extracts from plants
of the genus Rhododendron. BMC Complement Altern Med. 2015;15(1):1 10.
Received: 3 July 2015 Accepted: 10 September 2015
26. Seephonkai P, Popescu R, Zehl M, Krupitza G, Urban E, Kopp B. Ferruginenes
a - C from Rhododendron ferrugineum and their cytotoxic evaluation.
J Nat Prod. 2011;74(4):712 7.
References 27. Li X, Jin H, Chen G, Yan S, Shen Y, Yang M, et al. Study advances on
1. Semkina OA. Ointments, gels, liniments, and creams containing chemical constituents and pharmacological activities of the Tibetan
phytopreparations (a review). Pharm Chem J. 2005;39(7):369 74. medicine Dali. Nat Product Res & Development. 2008;20(6):1125 8.
2. Fennell CW, Lindsey KL, McGaw LJ, Sparg SG, Stafford GI, Elgorashi EE, 28. Niles AL, Moravec RA, Riss TL. In vitro viability and cytotoxicity testing and
et al. Assessing African medicinal plants for efficacy and safety: same-well multi-parametric combinations for high throughput screening.
pharmacological screening and toxicology. J Ethnopharmacol. Current Chemical Genomics. 2009;3:33 41.
2004;94(2 3):205 17. 29. Thomas C, Oates PS. IEC-6 cells are an appropriate model of intestinal iron
3. Solecki RS. Shanidar IV, a neanderthal flower burial in Northern Iraq. absorption in rats. J Nutr. 2002;132(4):680 7.
Science. 1975;190(4217):880 1. 30. Mayer K, Vreeman A, Qu H, Brix K. Release of endo-lysosomal cathepsins B,
4. Zhang X. WHO traditional medicine strategy 2002 2005. Geneva, Switzerland: D, and L from IEC6 cells in a cell culture model mimicking intestinal
World Health Organization; 2002. manipulation. Biol Chem. 2009;390(5/6):471 80.
Rezk et al. BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine (2015) 15:364 Page 18 of 18
31. Buth H, Luigi Buttigieg P, Ostafe R, Rehders M, Dannenmann SR, Schaschke N, 54. Rietjens IMCM, Boersma MG, van der Woude H, Jeurissen SMF, Schutte ME,
et al. Cathepsin B is essential for regeneration of scratch-wounded normal Alink GM. Flavonoids and alkenylbenzenes: mechanisms of mutagenic
human epidermal keratinocytes. Eur J Cell Biol. 2007;86(11 12):747 61. action and carcinogenic risk. Mutation research/fundamental and molecular
32. Rehders M, Grosshäuser BB, Smarandache A, Sadhukhan A, Mirastschijski U, mechanisms of mutagenesis. Genes and Environment Bridging the Gap.
Kempf J, et al. Effects of lunar and mars dust simulants on HaCaT 2005;574(1 2):124 38.
keratinocytes and CHO-K1 fibroblasts. Adv Space Res. 2011;47(7):1200 13. 55. Li FR, Yu FX, Yao ST, Si YH, Zhang W, Gao LL. Hyperin extracted from
Manchurian rhododendron leaf induces apoptosis in human endometrial
33. Huet O, Petit JM, Ratinaud MH, Julien R. NADH-dependent dehydrogenase
activity estimation by flow cytometric analysis of 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazolyl-2-yl)- cancer cells through a mitochondrial pathway. Asian Pac J Cancer Prev.
2012;13(8):3653 6.
2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) reduction. Cytometry. 1992;13(5):532 9.
56. Way TD, Tsai SJ, Wang CM, Ho CT, Chou CH. Chemical constituents of
34. Mosmann T. Rapid colorimetric assay for cellular growth and survival:
Rhododendron formosanum show pronounced growth inhibitory effect on
application to proliferation and cytotoxicity assays. J Immunol Methods.
non-small-cell lung carcinoma cells. J Agric Food Chem. 2014;62(4):875 84.
1983;65(1 2):55 63.
57. Eckert RL, Rorke EA. Molecular biology of keratinocyte differentiation.
35. Twentyman PR, Luscombe M. A study of some variables in a tetrazolium
Environ Health Perspect. 1989;80(1):109 16.
dye (MTT) based assay for cell growth and chemosensitivity. Br J Cancer.
58. Yuan J, Kroemer G. Alternative cell death mechanisms in development and
1987;56(3):279 85.
beyond. Genes Dev. 2010;24(23):2592 602.
36. Arampatzidou M, Rehders M, Dauth S, Yu DM, Tedelind S, Brix K.
Imaging of protease functions-current guide to spotting cysteine cathepsins
in classical and novel scenes of action in mammalian epithelial cells and
tissues. Ital J Anat Embryol. 2011;116(1):1 19.
37. Burton K. A study of the conditions and mechanism of the diphenylamine
reaction for the colorimetric estimation of deoxyribonucleic acid. Biochem J.
1956;62(2):315 23.
38. Cockerill FR, Wikler MA, Adler J, Dudley MN, Eliopoulos GM, Ferraro MJ, et al.
Methods for Dilution Antimicrobial Susceptibility Tests for Bacteria that
grow Aerobically. Approved Standard - Ninth Edition. CLSI document
M07-A9. Wayne, PA: Clinical and Laboratory Standard Institute. 2012.
39. Carpenter A, Jones TR, Lamprecht MR, Clarke C, Kang IH, Friman O.
Cell Profiler: image analysis software for identifying and quantifying cell
phenotypes. Genome Biol. 2006;7(10):R100.
40. Iwata N, Wang N, Yao X, Kitanaka S. Structures and histamine release
inhibitory effects of prenylated orcinol derivatives from rhododendron
dauricum1. J Nat Prod. 2004;67(7):1106 9.
41. Bhattacharyya D. Rhododendron species and their uses with special
reference to Himalayas a review. Assam University J Sci & Technology:
Biological and Environ Sci. 2011;7(1):161 7.
42. Peng YY, Liu FH, Ye JN. Determination of bioactive flavonoids in
Rhododendron dauricum L. By capillary electrophoresis with electrochemical
detection. Chromatographia. 2004;60(9 10):597 602.
43. Cao Y, Chu Q, Ye J. Chromatographic and electrophoretic methods
for pharmaceutically active compounds in Rhododendron dauricum.
J Chromatogr B. 2004;812(1 2):231 40.
44. Zou H-Y, Luo J, Xu DR, Kong LY. Tandem Solid-Phase Extraction Followed
by HPLC ESI/QTOF/MS/MS for Rapid Screening and Structural Identification of
Trace Diterpenoids in Flowers of Rhododendron molle. Phytochem Anal.
2014;25(3):255 65.
45. Qiang Y, Zhou B, Gao K. Chemical constituents of plants from the genus
Rhododendron. Chem Biodivers. 2011;8(5):792 815.
46. Amil-Ruiz F, Bianco-Portales R, Muńoz-Blanco J, Caballero JL. The strawberry
plant defense mechanism: a molecular review. Plant Cell Physiol.
2011;52(11):1873 903.
47. Jaiswal R, Jayasinghe L, Kuhnert N. Identification and characterization of
proanthocyanidins of 16 members of the Rhododendron genus (Ericaceae)
by tandem LC MS. J Mass Spectrom. 2012;47(4):502 15.
48. Santos FV, Colus IM, Silva MA, Vilegas W, Varanda EA. Assessment of DNA
damage by extracts and fractions of Strychnos pseudoquina, a Brazilian
medicinal plant with antiulcerogenic activity. Food Chem Toxicol.
2006;44(9):1585 9.
49. Mei N, Heflich RH, Chou MW, Chen T. Mutations induced by the Submit your next manuscript to BioMed Central
carcinogenic pyrrolizidine alkaloid riddelliine in the liver cII gene of
and take full advantage of:
transgenic Big blue rats. Chem Res Toxicol. 2004;17(6):814 8.
50. Farias Vargas Junior S, Marcolongo-Pereira C, Halinski-Silveira D, Grecco FB,
" Convenient online submission
Raffi MB, Schild AL, et al. Rhododendron simsii poisoning in goats in
" Thorough peer review
Southern Brazil. Cięncia Rural. 2014;44(7):1249 52.
51. Puschner B, Holstege DM, Lamberski N. Grayanotoxin poisoning in three
" No space constraints or color figure charges
goats. J Am Vet Med Assoc. 2001;218(4):573 5. 527 78.
" Immediate publication on acceptance
52. Berny P, Caloni F, Croubels S, Sachana M, Vandenbroucke V, Davanzo F,
" Inclusion in PubMed, CAS, Scopus and Google Scholar
et al. Animal poisoning in Europe. Part 2: companion animals. Vet J.
2010;183(3):255 9.
" Research which is freely available for redistribution
53. Ernst E. Systematic reviews of herbal medicines. Am J Med. 2004;117(7):533.
Submit your manuscript at
www.biomedcentral.com/submit
Wyszukiwarka
Podobne podstrony:
SOME DEEPER ASPECTS OF MASONIC SYMBOLISM by A E Waite10 Rules of Anal Sex by Jack MorinOccultations of PPM stars by Mars 1950 2050Occultations of PPM stars by Venus 1950 2050Occultations of PPM stars by Uranus 1950 2050Legacy Of Brutality Tab by MisfitsInduction of two cytochrome P450 genes, Cyp6a2 and Cyp6a8 of Drosophila melanogaster by caffeineOccultations of PPM stars by Neptun 1950 2050Review on the Assessment of Safety and RisksGuidance on human health risk benefit assessment of foods23 Assessment of Quality of Various Water TypesAssessment of Hazard in the Manual Handling of Explosives Initiator Devices03 Electrophysiology of myocardium Myocardial Mechanics Assessment of cardiac function PLPractical Analysis Techniques of Polymer Fillers by Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR)Calculation of Dust Lifting by a Transient Shock WaveThe Lessons of Asgard ed by Stephen A McNallen (1985)[42]Oxidative breakage of cellular DNA by plant polyphenols A putative mechanism for anticancer prowięcej podobnych podstron