Clinical Biomechanics 15 (2000) 633ą648
www.elsevier.com/locate/clinbiomech
Review paper
Biomechanics of the cervical spine. I: Normal kinematics
a,* b
Nikolai Bogduk , Susan Mercer
a
Newcastle Bone and Joint Institute, University of Newcastle, Royal Newcastle Hospital, Level 4, David Maddison Building, Newcastle, NSW 2300,
Australia
b
Department of Anatomy, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand
Abstract
This review constitutes the rst of four reviews that systematically address contemporary knowledge about the mechanical
behavior of the cervical vertebrae and the soft-tissues of the cervical spine, under normal conditions and under conditions that result
in minor or major injuries. This rst review considers the normal kinematics of the cervical spine, which predicates the appreciation
of the biomechanics of cervical spine injury. It summarizes the cardinal anatomical features of the cervical spine that determine how
the cervical vertebrae and their joints behave. The results are collated of multiple studies that have measured the range of motion of
individual joints of the cervical spine. However, modern studies are highlighted that reveal that, even under normal conditions,
range of motion is not consistent either in time or according to the direction of motion. As well, detailed studies are summarized that
reveal the order of movement of individual vertebrae as the cervical spine Żexes or extends. The review concludes with an account of
the location of instantaneous centres of rotation and their biological basis.
Relevance
The facts and precepts covered in this review underlie many observations that are critical to comprehending how the cervical
spine behaves under adverse conditions, and how it might be injured. Forthcoming reviews draw on this information to explain how
injuries might occur in situations where hitherto it was believed that no injury was possible, or that no evidence of injury could be
detected. Ó 2000 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Cervical spine; Biomechanics; Movements; Anatomy
1. Introduction therefore, predicated by the anatomy of the bones that
make up the neck and the joints that they form.
Amongst its several functions, the head can be re-
garded as a platform that houses the sensory apparatus
for hearing, vision, smell, taste and related lingual and 2. Functional anatomy
labial sensations. In order to function optimally, these
sensory organs must be able to scan the environment For descriptive purposes, the cervical spine can be
and be delivered towards objects of interest. It is the divided and perceived as consisting of four units, each
cervical spine that subserves these facilities. The cervical with a unique morphology that determines its kine-
spine constitutes a device that supports the sensory matics and its contribution to the functions of the
platform, and moves and orientates it in three-dimen- complete cervical spine. In anatomical terms the units
sional space. are the atlas, the axis, the C2ą3 junction and the re-
The movements of the head are executed by muscles maining, typical cervical vertebrae. In metaphorical,
but the type of movements possible depend on the shape functional terms these can be perceived as the cradle, the
and structure of the cervical vertebrae and interplay axis, the root, and the column.
between them. The kinematics of the cervical spine are,
2.1. The cradle
The atlas vertebra serves to cradle the occiput. Into
*
its superior articular sockets it receives the condyles of
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: mgillam@mail.newcastle.edu.au (N. Bogduk). the occiput. The union between the head and atlas,
0268-0033/00/$ - see front matter Ó 2000 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 2 6 8 - 0 0 3 3 ( 0 0 ) 0 0 034- 6
634 N. Bogduk, S. Mercer / Clinical Biomechanics 15 (2000) 633ą648
through the atlanto-occipital joints, is strong, and allows
only for nodding movements between the two struc-
tures. In all other respects the head and atlas move and
function essentially as one unit.
The stability of the atlanto-occipital joint stems
largely from the depth of the atlantial sockets. The side
walls of the sockets prevent the occiput from sliding
Fig. 2. Right lateral views of axial rotation of the atlanto-occipital
sideways; the front and back walls prevent anterior and
joints. Rotation requires forward translation of one condyle and
posterior gliding of the head, respectively. The only backward translation of the other. Translation is possible only if the
condyles rise up the respective walls of the atlantial sockets. As a re-
physiological movements possible at this joint are Żex-
sult, the occiput rises relative to its resting position (centre gure).
ion and extension, i.e. nodding. These are possible be-
cause the atlantial sockets are concave whereas the
against the posterior wall of its socket. For the head to
occipital condyles are convex.
rotate, the condyles must rise up their respective walls.
Flexion is achieved by the condyles rolling forwards
Consequently, the occiput must separate from the atlas
and sliding backwards across the anterior walls of their
(Fig. 2). This separation is resisted by tension in the
sockets (Fig. 1). If the condyles only rolled, they would
capsules of the atlanto-occipital joints. As a result, the
roll up and over the anterior wall of their sockets. Axial
range of motion possible is severely limited. Lateral
forces exerted by the mass of the head or the muscles
Żexion is limited by similar mechanisms. For lateral
causing Żexion prevent this upward displacement and
Żexion to occur the contralateral condyle must lift out of
cause the condyles to slide downwards and backwards
its socket, which engages tension in the joint capsule.
across the concave surface of the socket. Thereby the
condyles remain within their sockets, and the composite
movement is a rotation, or a spin, of each condyle across 2.2. The axis
the surface of its socket. A converse combination of
movements occurs in extension. This combination of Carrying the head the atlas sits on the atlas, with the
roll and contrary glide is typical of condylar joints. weight being borne through the lateral atlanto-axial
The ultimate restraint to Żexion and extension of the joints. After weight-bearing, the cardinal function of the
atlanto-occipital joint is impaction of the rim of the atlanto-axial junction is to permit a large range of axial
socket against the base of the skull. Under normal rotation. This movement requires the anterior arch of
conditions, however, Żexion is limited by tension in the the atlas to pivot on the odontoid process and slide
posterior neck muscles and by impaction of the sub- around its ipsilateral aspect; this movement being
mandibular tissues against the throat. Extension is lim- accommodated at the median atlanto-axial joint
ited by the occiput compressing the suboccipital (Fig. 3(A)). Meanwhile, at the lateral atlanto-axial joint
muscles. the ipsilateral lateral mass of the atlas must slide back-
Axial rotation and lateral Żexion are not physiologi- wards and medially while the contralateral lateral mass
cal movements of the atlanto-occipital joints. They must slide forwards and medially (Fig. 3).
cannot be produced in isolation by the action of mus- Radiographs of the lateral atlanto-axial joints belie
cles. But they can be produced articially by forcing the their structure. In radiographs the facets of the joint
head into these directions while xing the atlas. Axial appear Żat, suggesting that during axial rotation the
rotation is prohibited by impaction of the contralateral lateral atlanto-axial joints glide across Żat surface. But
condyle against the anterior wall of its socket and si- radiographs do not reveal cartilage. The articular car-
multaneously by impaction of the ipsilateral condyle tilages both of the atlantial and the axial facets of the
Fig. 1. Right lateral views of Żexion and extension of the atlanto-oc-
cipital joints. The centre gure depicts the occipital condyle resting in
the atlantial socket in a neutral position. The dots are reference points. Fig. 3. Atlanto-axial rotation. A: top view. The anterior arch of the
In Żexion the head rotates forwards but the condyle also translates atlas (shaded) glides around the odontoid process. B: right lateral view.
backwards, as indicated by the displacement of the references dot. A The lateral mass of the atlas subluxates forwards across the superior
converse combination of movements occurs in extension. articular process of the axis.
N. Bogduk, S. Mercer / Clinical Biomechanics 15 (2000) 633ą648 635
Fig. 5. The mechanism of paradoxical movements of the atlas. In the
Fig. 4. Lateral view of a right lateral atlanto-axial joint (centre gure)
neutral position (centre gure) the atlas is balanced on the convexities of
showing the biconcave structure of the articular cartilages. Upon
its articular cartilages. If the atlas is compressed anterior to the balance
forward or backward displacement, the lateral mass of the atlas settles
point, it Żexes. If compressed behind the balance point, it extends.
as it slips down the slope of the cartilage.
contact point, the atlas will extend; even if the rest of the
cervical spine Żexes (Fig. 5). If, during Żexion, the chin is
joint are convex, rendering the joint biconvex [1] (Fig. 4).
tucked backwards, paradoxical extension of the atlas is
The spaces formed anteriorly and posteriorly, where the
virtually assured, because retraction of the chin favours
articular surfaces diverge, are lled by intra-articular
the line of weight-bearing of the skull to fall behind the
meniscoids [2]. In the neutral position the summit of the
centre of the lateral atlanto-axial joints.
atlantial convexity rests on the convexity of the axial
The restraints to Żexion/extension of the atlas have
facet. As the atlas rotates, however, the ipsilateral at-
never been formally established. No ligaments are dis-
lantial facet slides down the posterior slope of its axial
posed to limit this motion. The various atlanto-occipital
fact, and the contralateral atlantial facet slides down the
membranes are fascial in nature and would not consti-
anterior slope of its facet. As a result, during axial ro-
tute substantive ligamentous restraints. Essentially, the
tation the atlas descends, or nestles into the axis (Fig. 4).
atlas is free to Żex or extend until the posterior arch hits
Upon reversing the rotation the atlas rises back onto the
either the occiput or the neural arch of C2, respectively.
summits of the facets.
The restraints to axial rotation are the capsules of the
Few muscles act directly on the atlas. The levator
lateral atlanto-axial joints and the alar ligaments. The
scapulae arises from its transverse process but uses this
capsules contribute to a minor degree; the crucial re-
point of suspension to act on the scapulas; it does not
straints are the alar ligaments [4]. Dislocation of the
move the atlas. Obliquus superior and rectus capitis
atlas in rotation does not occur while so long as the alar
posterior minor arise from the atlas and act on the oc-
ligaments remain intact. This feature further under-
ciput, as do rectus anterior and rectus lateralis. At-
scores the passive nature of the atlas, for the alar liga-
taching to the anterior tubercle, longus cervicis is the
ments do not attach to the atlas; rather, they bind the
one muscle that acts directly on the atlas, to Żex it. But
head to the odontoid process of the axis. By limiting
paradoxically there is no antagonist to this muscle.
the range of motion of the head they secondarily limit
This paradox underscores the fact that the atlas acts
the movement of the atlas.
as a passive washer, interposed between the head and
Backward sliding of the atlas is limited absolutely by
the cervical spine proper. Its movements are essentially
impaction of the anterior arch of the atlas against the
passive and governed essentially by the muscles that act
odontoid process, but there is no bony obstruction to
on the head. Accordingly, rotation of the atlas is
forward sliding. That movement is limited by the
brought about by splenius capitis and sternocleidomas-
transverse ligament of the atlas and the alar ligaments.
toid acting on the head. Torque is then transferred from
As long as either ligament remains intact, dislocation of
the head, though the atlanto-occipital joints, to the at-
the atlas is prevented [5].
las. The bres of splenius cervics that insert into the
Lateral gliding involves the ipsilateral lateral mass of
atlas supplement this eect.
the atlas sliding down the slope of its supporting supe-
The passive movements of the atlas are most evident
rior articular process while the contralateral lateral mass
in Żexion/extension of the neck where, indeed, the atlas
slides upwards. The movement is primarily limited by
exhibits paradoxical motion. At full Żexion of the neck
the contralateral alar ligament, but is ultimately blocked
the atlas can extend, and usually does so [3]. This arises
by impaction of the lateral mass on the side of the
because the atlas, sandwiched between the head and
odontoid process [6].
axis, and balanced precariously on the summits of the
lateral atlanto-axial facets, is subject to compression
loads. If the net compression passes anterior to the 2.3. The root
contact point in the lateral atlanto-axial joint, the lateral
mass of the atlas will be squeezed into Żexion (Fig. 5). The C2ą3 junction is commonly regarded as the
Conversely, if the line of compression passes behind the commencement of the typical cervical spine, where all
636 N. Bogduk, S. Mercer / Clinical Biomechanics 15 (2000) 633ą648
segments share the same morphological and kinematic lower, typical cervical segments. One dierence is that
features. However, the C2ą3 junction diers from other during axial rotation of the neck, the direction of cou-
segments in a subtle but obscure way. pling with lateral Żexion at C2ą3 is opposite to that seen
The dierences in morphology are not readily ap- at lower segments (see Table 4). Instead of bending to-
parent and, for this reason, have largely escaped notice. wards the same side as rotation, C2 rotates away from
A pillar view of the region reveals the dierence. (A that side, on the average. The lower location of the su-
pillar view is obtained by beaming X-rays upwards and perior articular process of C3 correlates with the lower
forwards through the cervical spine, essentially along the location of the axis of sagittal rotation of C2 (see
planes of the zygapophysial joints.) In such a view Fig. 14). Other dierences in how C2ą3 operates have
the body of the axis looks like a deep root, anchoring the not been elaborated, but the unique architecture of C2ą3
apparatus, that holds and moves the head, into the suggests that further dierences are open to discovery.
typical cervical spine (Fig. 6). Moreover, in such view,
the atypical orientation of the C2ą3 zygapophysial joints 2.4. The column
is seen. Unlike the typical zygapophysial joints whose
planes are transverse, the superior articular processes of At typical cervical segments, the vertebral bodies are
C3 face not only upwards and backwards but also me- stacked on one another, separated by intervertebral
dially, by about 40 [7]. Together, the processes of both discs. The opposing surfaces of the vertebral bodies,
sides form a socket into which the inferior articular however, are not Żat as they are in the lumbar spine.
processes of the axis are nestled. Furthermore, the su- Rather, they are gently curved in the sagittal plane. The
perior articular processes of C3 lie lower, with respect anterior inferior border of each vertebral body forms a
to their vertebral body, than the processes of lower lip that hangs downwards like a slight hook towards the
segments [8]. anterior superior edge of the vertebra below. Mean-
These dierences in architecture imply that the C2ą3 while, the superior surface of each vertebral body slopes
joints should operate in a manner dierent from that of greatly downwards and forwards. As a result, the plane
of the intervertebral disc is set not perpendicular but
somewhat oblique to the long axes of the vertebral
bodies. This structure reŻects, and is conducive to,
Żexionąextension being the cardinal movement of typi-
cal cervical segments.
The vertebral bodies are also curved from side-to-
side, but this curvature is not readily apparent. It is re-
vealed if sections are taken through the posterior ends of
the vertebral bodies, either parallel to the planes of the
zygapophysial joints, or perpendicular to these planes.
Such sections reveal that the inferior surface of the hind
end of the vertebral body is convex, and that convexity
is received by a concavity formed by the body below and
its uncinate processes (Fig. 7). The appearance is that of
an ellipsoid joint (like the wrist). This structure suggest
that vertebral bodies can rock side-to-side in the con-
cavity of the uncinate processes. Further consideration
reveals that this is so, but only in one plane.
If sections are taken through the cervical spine along
planes perpendicular to the zygapophysial joints, and if
the sections through the uncinate region and through
the zygapophysial joints are superimposed, the appear-
ance is revealing [9,10] (Fig. 8). The structure of the
interbody junction is ellipsoid and suggests that rocking
could occur between the vertebral bodies. However, in
Fig. 6. A tracing of a pillar view of the upper cervical spine, showing
this plane the facets of the zygapophysial joints are di-
the unique morphology of C2 (shaded). (A pillar view is a radiographic
projection of the cervical spline obtained by directing the beams up- rectly opposed. Therefore, any attempted rocking of the
wards and forwards from behind the cervical spine, essentially along
vertebral body is immediately prevented by the facets
the planes of the lower cervical zygapophysial joints.) Note how the
(Fig. 8).
zygapophysial joints at lower levels (arrowed) are orientated trans-
If sections are taken through the plane of the zyga-
versely whereas at C2ą3 they are inclined medially, cradling the pos-
pophysial joints, the ellipsoid structure of the interbody
terior elements of the axis while its vertebral body dips like a deep root
into the cervical vertebral column. joint is again revealed, but the zygapophysial joints
N. Bogduk, S. Mercer / Clinical Biomechanics 15 (2000) 633ą648 637
Fig. 9. The appearance, viewed from above, of superimposed sections
of a C5ą6 cervical intervertebral joint taken through the uncinate
region and through the zygapophysial joints, along a plane parallel to
that of the zygapophysial joints. In this plane, if the C5 vertebral body
rotates, its inferior articular facets (iaf) are free to glide across the
surface of the superior articular facets of C6.
Fig. 7. A sketch of a section taken obliquely through the posterior end
of a C5ą6 interbody joint, along a plane parallel to the plane of the
zygapophysial joints. Between the uncinate processes (u) the C6
vertebral body presents a concave articular surface that receives the
convex inferior surface of C5.
Fig. 8. The appearance, viewed from above, of a section of a C6ą7
cervical intervertebral joint taken through the uncinate region and the
zygapophysial joints, along a plane perpendicular to the zygapophysial
joints. In this plane, if the C6 vertebral body rotates to the left, its right
inferior articular process (iap) immediately impacts, en face, into the
superior articular process (sap) of C7; which precludes lateral rotation
of C6.
Fig. 10. The saddle shape of cervical intervertebral joints. The inferior
surface of the upper vertebral body is concave downwards in the
sagittal plane (s). The superior surface of the lower vertebral body is
present en face. Consequently the facets do not impede
concave upwards in the transverse plane (t).
rocking of the vertebral bodies in this plane. Indeed, the
facets slide freely upon one another (Fig. 9).
These observations indicate that the cervical inter- upwards (Fig. 10). This means that the vertebral body is
vertebral joints are saddle joints: they consist of two free to rock forwards in the sagittal plane, around a
concavities facing one another and set at right angles to transverse axis, and is free to rock side-to-side in the
one another [9,10]. Across the sagittal plane the inferior place of the facets, around an axis perpendicular to the
surface of the vertebral body is concave downwards, facets (Fig. 11). Motion in the third plane ą side-to-side
while across the plane of the zygapophysial joints the around an oblique anterior ą posterior axis is precluded
uncinate region of the lower vertebral body is concave by the orientation of the facets.
638 N. Bogduk, S. Mercer / Clinical Biomechanics 15 (2000) 633ą648
does not swing but pivots about the axis without gliding.
Meanwhile, the posterior end of the vertebral body must
be able to swing (because it is displaced from the axis).
These requirements are reŻected in the structure of the
intervertebral disc.
The cervical intervertebral discs are not like lumbar
discs; they lack a concentric anulus brosis around their
entire perimeter [11]. The cervical anulus is well devel-
oped and thick anteriorly; but it tapers laterally and
posteriorly towards the anterior edge of the uncinate
process on each side (Fig. 12). Moreover, a criss-cross
arrangement of collagen bres as seen in lumbar discs, is
absent. Instead, bres of the anterior anulus consistently
converge upwards towards the anterior end of the upper
vertebra [11]. This arrangement is consistent with that
vertebra pivoting about its anterior end. In eect, the
anterior anulus is an interosseous ligament, disposed
like an inverted ``V'' whose apex points to the axis of
rotation.
An anulus is lacking posteriorly [11]. It is represented
only by a few bres near the median plane that are
longitudinally orientated and gathered in a lamina only
Fig. 11. The planes of motion of a cervical motion segment. Flexion
and extension occur around a transverse axis (axis I). Axial rotation about 1 mm thick. Lateral to these bres, as far as the
occurs around a modied axis (axis II) passing perpendicular to the
uncinate process, the anulus is absent. The back of the
plane of the zygapophysial joints, and this motion is cradled by the
disc is covered only by the posterior longitudinal
uncinate processes. The third axis (axis III) lies perpendicular to both
ligament.
of the rst two axes but no motion can occur about this axis (see
Fig. 8).
This description appears dissonant with traditional
ideas that typical cervical segments exhibit Żexion/ex-
tension, lateral Żexion, and axial rotation; but it is not.
Rather it allows Żexion/extension but stipulates that the
only other pure movement is rotation around an axis
perpendicular to the facets. Since the facets are orien-
tated at about 45 to the transverse plane of the verte-
brae,[8] the axis of rotation is 45 from the conventional
axes of both horizontal axial rotation and lateral Żexion.
This geometry stipulates that conventional horizontal
axial rotation and lateral Żexion and trigonometric
projections of the true axial rotation that occurs in the
cervical spine. Moreover, it stipulates that horizontal
rotation is inexorably coupled with lateral Żexion, and
vice-versa. If horizontal rotation is attempted, the infe-
rior articular process must ride up this slope. As a result,
the vertebra must tilt to the side of rotation. A recip-
rocal combination of events obtains when lateral Żexion
is attempted. Downward movement of the ipsilateral
inferior articular process is arrested by the upward fac-
Fig. 12. Sketches of the structure of a cervical intervertebral disc. A:
ing superior articular process; but is permitted if the
front view, showing how the bres of the anterior anulus brosus
inferior process slides backwards down the slope of the converge upwards towards the midline. B: lateral view, showing how
the annulus brosus (af) constitutes an anterior interosseous ligament.
superior process. As a result, the vertebrae must rotate
Meanwhile the nucleus pulposus is split posteriorly by a transverse
to the side of lateral Żexion.
cleft (arrow). C: top view, showing the crescentic shape of the anulus
The axis of rotation in the plane of the zygapophysial
brosus, thick anteriorly but tapering towards the uncinate process as
joints passes through the anterior end of the moving
it surrounds the nucleus pulposus (np). Posteriorly, the anulus is rep-
vertebral body [9,10]. This means that the anterior end resented only by a small bundle of vertical, paramedian bres.
N. Bogduk, S. Mercer / Clinical Biomechanics 15 (2000) 633ą648 639
Table 1
This structure arises in adults through the develop-
Results of studies of normal ranges of Żexionąextension at the
ment of transverse ssures across the back the cervical
atlanto-occipital joint
discs [12]. The ssures commence, at about the age of
nine years, as clefts in the uncovertebral region. Pro-
Source Mean Range of motion (deg)
gressively they extend medially across the disc, ulti-
Range SD
mately to form transverse clefts by the third decade.
These clefts are a normal feature of cervical discs. What
Brocher [18] 14.3 0ą25
is not known is whether they constitute some form of
Lewit and Krausova [19] 15
programmed attrition of the posterior anulus, or they Markuske [20] 14.5
Fielding [21] 35
arise as a result of repeated attempts at axial rotation
Kottke and Mundale [22] 0ą22
during early life. Whatever the explanation, their pres-
Lind et al. [23] 14 15
ence allows, or facilitates, axial rotation.
In the absence of a posterior anulus, and given a
que was applied to the cadavers. A dierent degree of
posterior transverse cleft the posterior end of the ver-
coupling could apply in vivo when axial rotation is at-
tebral body is free to swing about an anteriorly located
tempted by the action of muscles.
axis. As it swings, its posterior inferior border glides up
Radiographic studies of the atlanto-occipital joints in
and down the concavity of the uncinate processes, while
vivo have addressed only the range of Żexionąextension
its inferior articular processes glide freely across the
because axial rotation and lateral Żexion are impossible
superior articular facets below (Fig. 9).
to determine accurately from plain radiographs. Most
The restraints to true axial rotation of a typical cer-
studies agree that the average range of motion is 14ą15
vical segment have not been determined by experiment.
(Table 1). For some reason, the values reported by
Theoretically they would appear to be tension in the
Fielding [21] are distinctly out of character. What is
capsules of the zygapophysial joints, and tension de-
conspicuous in Table 1 is the enormous variance in
veloped in the anterior anulus brosus as this structure
range exhibited by normal individuals, which indeed led
twists about the axis of rotation. If rotation is attempted
one group of investigators [22] to refrain from oering
in the horizontal plane, the slope of the zygapophysial
either an average or representative range. This is re-
joints is the primary impediment to rotation.
Żected formally by the results of Lind et al. [23] in which
Flexion is resisted in concert by the posterior longi-
the coecient of variation is over 100%. The reasons for
tudinal ligament, the ligamentum Żavum, the capsules of
these discrepancies in ndings is not readily apparent
the zygapophysial joints, and the interspinous ligaments.
from the original publications, but could be due to dif-
Stability is maintained if either the posterior longitudi-
ferences in the way in which occipital Żexion/extension
nal ligament or the zygapophysial joints remain intact
were executed and the paradoxical motion of the atlas
[13,14]. Extension is principally limited by the anterior
that dierent strategies induce.
longitudinal ligament and the anulus brosus, and ulti-
mately by impaction of spinous processes or laminae
posteriorly. 3.2. Atlanto-axial joint
In cadavers the atlanto-axial joints exhibit about 47
3. Kinematics of axial rotation and some 10 of Żexionąextension [15].
Lateral Żexion measures about 5 [24]. In living indi-
3.1. Atlanto-occipital joint viduals, plain radiography cannot be used to determine
accurately the range of axial rotation of the atlas, for
Studies of the atlanto-occipital joint in cadavers direct, top views of the moving vertebra cannot be ob-
found the range of Żexionąextension to be about 13; tained. Consequently, the range of axial rotation can
that of axial rotation was 0; but about 8 was possible only be inferred from plain lms. For this reason, most
when the movement was forced [15]. A detailed radio- investigators using plain radiography have reported
graphic study of cadaveric specimens [16,17] found the only the range of Żexionąextension exhibited by the at-
mean ranges (SD) to be Żexionąextension: 18:60:6ą, las (Table 2).
axial rotation 3:40:4ą, and lateral Żexion 3:9 0:6ą. It One approach to obtaining values of the range of
also revealed that when Żexionąextension was executed, axial rotation of the atlas has been to use biplanar ra-
it was accompanied by negligible movements in the diography [26]. The results of such studies reveal that
other planes; but when axial rotation was executed as the total range of rotation (from left to right) of the
the primary movement, 1.5 of extension and 2.7 of occiput versus C2 is 75:2 (SD, 11.8). Moreover, axial
lateral Żexion occurred. However, rather than indicating rotation is, on the average, accompanied by 14 (SD, 6)
a normal or ``natural'' coupling of movements, these of extension and 24 (SD, 6) of contralateral lateral
gures more likely reŻect how and where the axial tor- Żexion. Axial rotation of the atlas is thus, not a pure
640 N. Bogduk, S. Mercer / Clinical Biomechanics 15 (2000) 633ą648
Table 2
number of patients so aicted is perhaps small, the use
Ranges of motion of the atlanto-axial joints
of functional CT constitutes a signicant breakthrough.
Functional CT is the only available means of reliably
Source Ranges of motion (deg)
diagnosing patients with alar ligament damage. Without
Axial rotation Flexioną
the application of CT these patients would continue to
extension
remain undiagnosed, and their complaint ascribed to
One side Total
unknown or psychogenic causes.
Brocher [18] 18 (2ą16)
Kottke and Mundale [22] 11
3.3. Lower cervical spine
Lewit and Krausova [19] 16
Markuske [20] 21
Lind et al. [23] 13 (5) Most studies of the lower cervical spine have ad-
Fielding [21] 90 15
dressed Żexionąextension movements, for these are the
Hohl and Baker [25] 30 (10ą15)
cardinal movements exhibited by these segments. In-
deed, in the literature it has been almost traditional for
yet another group each year to add another contribution
movement; it is coupled with a substantial degree of
to issues such as the range of movement of the neck [33ą
extension, or in some cases ą Żexion. The coupling arises
54]. The study of axial rotation is more demanding, and
because of the passive behavior of the atlas under axial
required the advent of biplanar radiography and CT.
loads from the head; whether it Żexes or extends during
axial rotation depends on the shape of the atlanto-axial
3.4. Axial rotation
joints and the exact orientation of any longitudinal
forces acting through the atlas from the head.
As explained previously, axial rotation of typical
Another approach to studying the range of axial ro-
cervical segments occurs most freely in the plane of the
tation of the atlas has been to use CT scanning. This
zygapophysial joints; but no one has determined the
facility was not available to early investigators of cer-
range of rotation in this plane. When attempted in the
vical kinematics, and data stemming from its application
horizontal plane, axial rotation is inexorably coupled
have appeared only in recent years. In a rigorous series
with ipsilateral lateral Żexion. Consequently, CT scan-
of studies, Dvorak and colleagues examined the anato-
ning across the conventional, horizontal plane is con-
my of the alar ligaments [27], the movements of the atlas
founded by movement of the plane of view, and does not
in cadavers [4,28,29], and how these could be demon-
reveal pure axial rotation. CT, therefore, provides only
strated using CT [30]. Subsequently, they applied the
an approximate estimate of the range of axial rotation of
same scanning technique to normal subjects and to pa-
the typical cervical vertebrae. One study has provided
tients with neck pain following motor vehicle trauma in
normative data using this technique [8] (Table 3).
whom atlanto-axial instability was suspected clinically
More valid measures can obtained from trigonomet-
[31,32].
ric reconstructions of movements studied by biplanar
They conrmed earlier demonstrations [5] that the
radiography. However, the accuracy of this method
transverse ligament of the atlas was critical in control-
depends on the accuracy of identifying like points on
ling Żexion of the atlas and its anterior displacement
four separate views of the same vertebra (an antero-
[29]. They showed that the alar ligaments were the car-
posterior and a lateral view in each of two positions).
dinal structures that limit axial rotation of the atlas
[28,29], although the capsules of the lateral atlanto-axial
joints contribute to a small extent [4,29]. In cadavers,
Table 3
32 (SD, 10) of axial rotation to either side could be
Mean values and ranges of axial rotation of cervical motion segments
as determined by CT scanninga
obtained; but if the contralateral alar ligament was
transected, the range increased by some 30% (i.e. by
Segment Range of motion (deg)
about 11) [30].
In normal individuals, the range of axial rotation, as
Mean Range
evident in CT scans, is 43 (SD, 5.5) to each side, with an
OccąC1 1.0 )2ą5
asymmetry of 2:7 (SD, 2) [31]. These gures establish
C1ąC2 40.5 29ą46
56 as a reliable upper limit of rotation, above which
C2ąC3 3.0 0ą10
pathological hypermobility can be suspected, with rup-
C3ąC4 6.5 3ą10
ture of the contralateral alar ligament being the most C4ąC5 6.8 1ą12
C5ąC6 6.9 2ą12
likely basis [31].
C6ąC7 2.1 2ą10
In studying a group of patients with suspected hy-
C7ąT1 2.1 )2ą7
permobility Dvorak et al. [31,32] found their mean
a
range of rotation, to each side, to be 58. Although the Based on Penning and Wilmink [10].
N. Bogduk, S. Mercer / Clinical Biomechanics 15 (2000) 633ą648 641
Table 4
Some investigators studied cadavers [42,45,50]. Such
Normal ranges of motion of cervical spine in axial rotation, and ranges
studies are an important rst iteration for they establish
of coupled motions, as determined by Biplanar radiographya
what might be expected when individual segments come
to be studied in vivo, and how it might best be mea-
Segment Coupled movement
sured. However, cadaver studies are relatively articial;
Axial Flexion/ Lateral
the movement of skeletons without muscles does not
rotation extension Żexion mean
accurately reŻect how intact, living individuals move.
mean degrees mean degrees degrees
Investigators recognized that for a proper compre-
(SD) (SD) (SD)
hension of cervical kinematics radiographic studies of
OccąC2 75 (12) )14 (6) )2 (6)
normal individuals were required; [32ą38,43ą48,52ą54]
C2ą3 7 (6) 0 (3) )2 (8)
and a large number of investigators produced what
C3ą4 6 (5) )3 (5) 6 (7)
might be construed as normative data on the range of
C4ą5 4 (6) )2 (4) 6 (7)
motion of individual cervical segments and the neck as a
C5ą6 5 (4) 2 (3) 4 (8)
C6ą7 6 (3) 3 (3) 3 (7) whole [7,22,33ą35,37,38,46ą48].
What is conspicuous about these data, however, is
a
Based on Mimura et al. [26].
that while ranges of values were sometimes reported,
standard deviations were not. It seems that most of these
Accuracy in this process is not easy to achieve [16].
studies were undertaken in a era before the advent of
Nevertheless, one study [26] has provided normative
statistical and epidemiological rigour. Two early studies
data using this technique (Table 4). What is noticeable
[36,46] provided raw data from which means and stan-
from these data is that biplanar radiography reveals a
dard deviations could be calculated, and two recent
somewhat more generous range of axial rotation than
studies [23, 52] provided data properly described in
does CT, but that this rotation is coupled with a lateral
statistical terms (Table 5).
Żexion of essentially the same magnitude.
The early studies of cervical motion were also marred
By applying trigonometric corrections to the data
by lack of attention to the reliability of the technique
obtained from CT and biplanar radiography, the range
used; inter-observer and intra-observer errors were not
of axial rotation in the plane of the zygapophysial joints
reported. This leaves unknown the extent to which ob-
can be calculated (see Appendix A). If the plane of the
server errors and technical errors compromise the ac-
joints is orientated at an angle of h to the horizontal
curacy of the data reported. Only those studies
plane; and if a is the rotation in the horizontal plane,
conducted in recent years specify the inter-observer er-
and u is the rotation in the plane of the facets,
ror of their techniques; [23,52] so only their data can be
tan a tan / cos h. Allowing for a 45 slope of the cer-
considered acceptable.
vical facets, for a range of horizontal rotation of 6 the
The implication of collecting normative data is that
range of rotation in the plane of the zygapophysial joints
somehow it might be used diagnostically to determine
would be about 8.
abnormality. Unfortunately, without means and stan-
dard deviations and without values for observer errors,
3.5. Flexionąextension normative data is at best illustrative, and cannot be
adopted for diagnostic purposes. To declare an indi-
Early studies of the cervical spine examined the range vidual or a segment to be abnormal, an investigator
of movement of the entire neck, typically by applying must clearly be able to calculate the probability of a
goniometers to the head [39ą41,44,51]. Fundamentally, given observation constituting a normal value, and must
however, such studies describe the range of movement of determine whether or not technical errors have biased
the head. Although they provide implicit data on the the observation.
global function of the neck, they do not reveal what One study has pursued this application using reliable
actually is happening inside the neck. and well-described data [52]. For active and passive
Table 5
Results of those studies of cervical Żexion and extension that reported both mean values and (standard deviations)
Source Number Mean range and standard deviation of motion ()
C2ą3 C3ą4 C4ą5 C5ą6 C6ą7
Aho et al. [36] 15 12 (5) 15 (7) 22 (4) 28 (4) 15 (4)
Bhalla and Simmons [46] 20 9 (1) 15 (2) 23 (1) 19 (1) 18 (3)
Lind et al. [23] 70 10 (4) 14 (6) 16 (6) 15 (8) 11 (7)
Dvorak et al. [52] 28 10 (3) 15 (3) 19 (4) 20 (4) 19 (4)
642 N. Bogduk, S. Mercer / Clinical Biomechanics 15 (2000) 633ą648
cervical Żexion, mean values and standard deviations over time could be determined. The results are most
were determined for the range of motion of every cer- revealing.
vical segment, using a method of stated reliability. The maximum range of motion of a given cervical
Furthermore, it was claimed that symptomatic patients segment is not necessarily reŻected by the range appar-
could be identied on the basis of hypermobility or ent when the position of the vertebra in full Żexion is
hypomobility [52]. However, the normal range adopted compared to its position in full extension. Often the
in this study was one standard deviation either side of maximum range of motion is exhibited at some stage
the mean [52]. This is irregular and illusory. during the excursion but prior to the neck reaching its
It is more conventional to adopt the two standard nal position. In other words, a vertebra may reach its
deviation range as the normal range. This convention maximum range of Żexion, but as the neck continues
establishes a range within which 96% of the asymp- towards ``full Żexion'', that vertebra actually reverses its
tomatic population lies; only 2% of the normal popu- motion, and extends slightly. This behavior is particu-
lation will fall above these limits, and only 2% will fall larly apparent at upper cervical segments: OccąC1, C1ą
below. Adopting a one standard deviation range classi- 2. A consequence of this behavior is that the total range
es only 67% of the normal population within the limits, of motion of the neck is not the arithmetic sum of its
leaving 33% of normal individuals outside the range. intersegmental ranges of motion.
This means that any population of putatively abnormal A second result is that segmental range of motion
individuals will be ``contaminated'' with 33% of the diers according to whether the motion is executed from
normal population. This reduces the specicity of the Żexion to extension or from extension to Żexion. At the
test, and increases its false-positive rate. same sitting, in the same individual, dierences of 5ą15
can be recorded in a single segment, particularly at Occą
C1 and C6ą7. The collective eect of these dierences,
3.6. Directional and temporal consistency segment by segment, can result in dierences of 10ą30
in total range of cervical motion.
Regardless of how fashionable it may have been to There is no criterion by which to decide which
study ranges of motion of the neck, and regardless of movement strategy should be preferred. It is not a
how genuine may have been the intent and desire of question of standardizing a convention as to which di-
early investigators to derive data that could be used to rection of movement should (arbitrarily) be recognized
detect abnormalities, a denitive study has appeared as standard. Rather, the behavior of cervical motion
which has put paid to all previous studies and renders segments simply raises a caveat that no single observa-
irrelevant any further studies of cervical motion using tion denes a unique range of movement. Since the di-
conventional radiographic techniques. No longer are rection of movement used can inŻuence the observed
any of the earlier data of any great use. range, an uncertainty arises. Depending on the segment
Van Mameren and colleagues [3] used an exquisite involved, an observer may record a range of movement
technique to study cervical motion in Żexion and exten- that may be ve or even 15 less or more the range of
sion in normal volunteers. High-speed cineradiographs which the segment is actually capable. By the same to-
were taken to produce upto 25 exposures fore each ex- ken, claims of therapeutic success in restoring a range of
cursion form full Żexion to full extension, or from full movement must be based on ranges in excess of this
extension to full Żexion. When printed and converted to range of uncertainty.
a static view, each frame provided an image equal in The third result is that ranges of movement are not
quality and resolution to a conventional lateral radio- stable with time. A dierence in excess of 5 for the same
graph of the cervical spine. These images could be reli- segment in the same individual can be recorded if they
ably digitized, and each could be compared to any other are studied by the same technique but on another oc-
in the series in order to reconstruct and plot the pattern casion, particular at segments OccąC1, C5ą6 and C6ą7.
of motion either algebraically or geometrically. Their Rhetorically, the question becomes ą which observation
technique diered from videoŻuoroscopy in that instead was the true normal? The answer is that, within an in-
of viewing dynamic lms, each frame was fastidiously dividual, normal ranges do not come as a single value;
studied as a static lm and compared to every other. they vary with time, and it is variance and the range of
Ten subjects undertook Żexion from full extension, variation that constitute the normal behavior, not a
and also extension from full Żexion. The experiments single value. The implication is that a single observation
were repeated two weeks and 10 weeks after the rst of a range must be interpreted carefully and can be used
observation. These studies allowed the ranges of motion for clinical purposes only with this variance in mind. A
of individual cervical segments to be studied and lower range today, a higher range tomorrow, or vice-
correlated against total range of motion of the neck, versa, could be only the normal, diurnal variation and
and against the direction in which movement was not something attributable to a disease or to a thera-
undertaken. Moreover, the stability of the observations peutic intervention.
N. Bogduk, S. Mercer / Clinical Biomechanics 15 (2000) 633ą648 643
3.7. Cadence individuals consistently show the same pattern with re-
spect to the order of maximum contribution of indi-
Commentators in the past have maintained that as vidual segments. Consistent between individuals is the
the cervical spine as a whole moves there must a set order of contribution of the lower cervical spine and its
order in which the individual cervical vertebra move, i.e. component segments during both Żexion and extension.
there must be a normal pattern of movement, or ca- Such variation as does occur between individuals applies
dence. Buonocore et al. [55] asserted that ``The spinous only to the mid cervical levels: C2ąC4.
processes during Żexion separate in a smooth fan-like
progression. Flexion motion begins in the upper cervical
3.8. Instantaneous centres of rotation
spine. The occiput separates smoothly from the poste-
rior arch of the atlas, which then separates smoothly
Having noted the lack of utility of range of motion
from the spine of the axis, and so on down the spine.
studies, some investigators explored the notion of
The interspaces between the spinous processes become
quality of motion of the cervical vertebrae. They con-
generally equal in complete Żexion. Most important, the
tended that although perhaps not revealed by abnormal
spinous processes separate in orderly progression. In
ranges of motion, abnormalities of the cervical spine
extension the spines rhythmically approximate each
might be revealed by abnormal patterns of motion
other in reverse order to become equidistant in full
within individual segments.
extension.''
When a cervical vertebra moves from full extension
This idealized pattern of movement is not what nor-
to full Żexion its path appears to lie along an arc whose
mally occurs. During Żexion and extension, the motion
center lies somewhere below the moving vertebra. This
of the cervical vertebrae is regular but is not simple; it is
center is called the instantaneous centre of rotation
complex and counter-intuitive. Nor is it easy to describe.
(ICR) and its location can be determined using simple
Van Mameren [56] undertook a detailed analysis of his
geometry. If tracings are obtained of lateral radiographs
cineradiographs of 10 normal individuals performing
of the cervical spine in Żexion and in extension, the
Żexion and extension of the cervical spine. His descrip-
pattern of motion of a given vertebra can be revealed by
tions are complex, reŻecting the intricacies of movement
superimposing the tracings of the vertebra below. This
of individual segments. However, a general pattern can
reveals the extension position and the Żexion position of
be discerned.
the moving vertebra in relation to the one below
Flexion is initiated in the lower cervical spine (C4ą7).
(Fig. 13). The location of the ICR is determined by
Within this block, and during this initial phase of mo-
tion, the C6ą7 segment regularly makes its maximum
contribution, before C5ą6, followed by C4ą5. That ini-
tial phase is followed by motion at C0ąC2, and then by
C2ą3 and C3ą4. During this middle phase, the order of
contribution of C2ą3 and C3ą4 is variable. Also during
this phase, a reversal of motion (i.e. slight extension)
occurs at C6ą7 and, in some individuals, at C5ą6. The
nal phase of motion again involves the lower cervical
spine (C4ą7), and the order of contribution of individual
segments is C4ą5, C5ą6, and C6ą7. During this phase,
C0ąC2 typical exhibits a reversal of motion (i.e. exten-
sion). Flexion is thus initiated and terminated by C6ą7.
It is never initiated at mid cervical levels. C0ąC2 and
C2ą3, C3ą4 contribute maximally during the middle
phase of motion, but in variable order.
Extension is initiated in the lower cervical spine (C4ą
7), but the order of contribution of individual segments
is variable. This is followed by the start of motion at
C0ąC2 and at C2ąC4. Between C2 and C4 the order of
contribution is quite variable. The terminal phase of
extension is marked by a second contribution by C4ą7,
in which the individual segments move in the regular
order ą C4ą5, C5ą6, C6ą7. During this phase the con-
tribution of C0ąC2 reaches its maximum.
Fig. 13. A sketch of a cervical motion segment illustrating how
The fact that this pattern of movements is repro-
the location of its instantaneous centre of rotation (ICR) can be
ducible is remarkable. Studied on separate occasions, determined by geometry.
644 N. Bogduk, S. Mercer / Clinical Biomechanics 15 (2000) 633ą648
drawing the perpendicular bisectors of intervals con-
necting like points on the two positions of the moving
vertebra. The point of intersection of the perpendicular
bisectors marks the location of the ICR (Fig. 13).
The rst normative data on the ICRs of the cervical
spine were provided by Penning [9,37,43]. He found
them to be located in dierent positions for dierent
cervical segments. At lower cervical levels, the ICRs
were located close to the intervertebral disc of the seg-
ment in question but, at higher segmental levels the ICR
was located substantially lower than this position.
A problem emerged, however, with Penning's data
[9,37,43]. Although he displayed the data graphically he
did not provide any statistical parameters such as the
mean location and variance; nor did he explain how
ICRs from dierent individuals with vertebra of dier-
ent sizes were plotted onto a single, common silhouette
of the cervical spine. This process requires some form of
normalization but this was not described by Penning
[9,37,43].
Subsequent studies pursued the accurate determi-
nation of the location of the ICRs of the cervical
spine. First, it was found that the technique used by
Penning [9,37,43,49] to plot ICRs was insuciently
accurate; the basic Żaw lay in how well the images of
the cervical vertebrae could be traced [57]. Subse-
quently, an improved technique with smaller inter-
observer errors was developed [58] and was used to
determine the location of ICRs in a sample of 40
normal individuals [59].
Accurate maps were developed of the mean location
and distribution of the ICRs of the cervical motion
segments (Fig. 14) based on raw data normalized for
Fig. 14. A sketch of an idealized cervical vertebral column illustrating
vertebral size and coupled with measure of inter-ob-
the mean location and two standard deviation range of distribution
server errors. The locations and distributions were of the instantaneous axes of rotation of the typical cervical motion
segments.
concordant with those described by Penning [9,37,43]
but the new data oered the advantage that because they
were described statistically they could be used to test
From above downwards the ICRs are located pro-
accurately hypotheses concerning the normal or abnor-
gressively higher and closer to the intervertebral disc of
mal locations of ICRs.
their segment (Fig. 14). A critical determinant of this
Some writers have protested against the validity and
progression is the height of the articular pillars [8]. These
reliability of ICRs, but the techniques they have used to
are low at C2ą3 and progressively higher towards C6ą7.
determine their location have been poorly described and
The height of the superior articular process at a given
not calibrated for error and accuracy [60]. In contrast,
level predicates how much sagittal rotation must occur
van Mameren et al. [61] have rigorously defended ICRs.
in the segment to allow a unit amount of translation [8].
They showed that a given ICR can be reliably and
Tall processes preclude translation unless rotation is
consistently calculated within a small margin of techni-
relatively large. The ratio between translation and ro-
cal error. Moreover, in contrast to range of motion, the
tation determines the location of the ICR (see below).
location of the ICR is independent of whether it is cal-
culated on the basis of anteŻexion or retroŻexion lms;
and strikingly the ICR is stable over time; no signicant 3.9. Abnormal ICRs
dierences in location occur if the ICR is recalculated
two weeks or 10 weeks after the initial observation [61]. The rst exploration of abnormal quality of cervical
Thus, the ICR stands as a reliable, stable parameter of motion was undertaken by Dimnet and colleagues [62].
the quality of vertebral motion through which abnor- They proposed that abnormal quality of motion would
malities of motion could be explored. be exhibited by abnormal locations of the ICRs of the
N. Bogduk, S. Mercer / Clinical Biomechanics 15 (2000) 633ą648 645
cervical motion segment. In a small study of six symp- undergone investigation of upper cervical segments with
tomatic patients they found that in patients with neck discography or joint blocks.
pain, the ICRs exhibited a wider scatter than in normal
individuals. However, they compared samples of pa-
3.10. Biological basis
tients and not individual patients; their data did not
reveal in a given patient which and how many ICRs
Mathematical analysis shows that the location of an
were normal or abnormal or to what extent.
ICR is a function of three basic variables: the amplitude
A similar study was pursued by Mayer et al. [63] who
of rotation (h) of a segment, its translation (T), and the
claimed that patients with cervical headache exhibited
location of its center of rotation (CR) [65]. In mathe-
abnormal ICRs of the upper cervical segments. How-
matical terms, with respect to any universal coordinate
ever, their normative data were poorly described with
system X ; Y ą, the location of the ICR is dened by the
respect to ranges of distribution; nor was the accuracy
equations:
described of their technique used to determine both
XICR XCR T =2;
normal and abnormal centres.
Nevertheless, these two studies augured that if reli-
YICR YCR T =2 tanh=2ą;
able and accurate techniques were to be used it was
likely that abnormal patterns of motion could be iden- where (XICR, YICR) is the location of the ICR, and (XCR,
tied in patients with neck pain, in the form of abnormal YCR) is the location of the center or reaction.
locations of their ICRs. This contention was formally In this context, the center of reaction is a point on the
investigated. inferior endplate of the moving vertebra where com-
Amevo et al. [64] studied 109 patients with post- pression loads on that vertebra are maximal, or the
traumatic neck pain. Flexionąextension radiographs mathematical average point where compression loads
were obtained and ICRs were determined for all seg- are transmitted from the vertebra to the underlying disc.
ments from C2ą3 to C6ą7 where possible. These loca- It is also the pivot point around which the vertebra
tions were subsequently compared with previously rocks under compression, or around which the vertebra
determined normative data [59]. It emerged that 77% of would rotate in the absence of any shear forces that add
the patients with neck pain exhibited an abnormally translation to the movement [65].
located centre at one segmental level at least. This re- The equations dictate that the normal location, and
lationship between axis location and pain was highly any abnormal location, of an ICR is governed by the net
signicant statistically (Table 6); there was clearly a eect of compression forces, shear forces and moments
relationship between pain and abnormal patterns of acting on the moving segment. The compression forces
motion. exerted by muscles and by gravity, and the resistance to
Further analysis revealed that most abnormal centres compression exerted by the facets and disc of the seg-
were at upper cervical levels, notably at C2ą3 and C3ą4. ment determine the location of the center of reaction.
However, there was no evident relationship between the The shear forces exerted by gravity and muscles, and the
segmental level of an abnormally located ICR and the resistance to these forces exerted by the intervertebral
segment found to be symptomatic on the basis of disc and facets determine the magnitude of translation.
provocation discography or cervical zygapophysial joint The moments exerted by gravity and by muscles, and the
blocks [64]. This suggested that perhaps abnormal ICRs resistance to these exerted by tension in ligaments, joint
were not caused by intrinsic abnormalities of a painful capsules and the anulus brosus determine the ampli-
segment but were secondary to some factor such as tude of rotation.
muscle spasm. However, this contention could not be These relationships allow the location of an ICR to
explored because insucient numbers of patients had be interpreted in anatomical and pathological terms.
Displacement of an ICR from its normal location can
Table 6
occur only if the normal balance of compression loads,
Chi-squared analysis of the relationship between the presence of pain
shear loads, or moments is disturbed. Moreover, dis-
and the location of instantaneous centres of rotationa
placements in particular directions can occur only as a
Instantaneous centre of rotation result of certain, nite, combinations of disturbances to
these variables. For example, the ICR equations dictate
Normal Abnormal
that downward and backward displacement of an ICR
can occur only if there is a simultaneous posterior dis-
Pain 31 78 109
No painb 44 2 46 placement of the center or reaction and a reduction in
75 80 155
rotation [65]. Mechanically, this combination of distur-
a bances is most readily achieved by increased posterior
2
X 58:5; df 1; P < 0:001.
b
muscle tension. On one hand, this tension eccentrically
n 46, and by denition 96% of these (44) exhibit normal ICRs.
Based on Amevo et al. [64]. loads the segment in compression, displacing the center
646 N. Bogduk, S. Mercer / Clinical Biomechanics 15 (2000) 633ą648
or reaction posteriorly; meanwhile, the increased tension [64]. However, the abnormal ICRs do not necessarily lie
limits forward Żexion and reduces angular rotation. An at the symptomatic segment. Therefore, they do not
abnormal ICR, displaced downwards and backwards is, reŻect damage to that segment. Rather, abnormal ICRs
therefore, a strong sign of increased posterior muscle seem to reŻect secondary eects of pain.
tension. Although the tension is not recorded electr- Theoretically, it is possible to apply the ICR equa-
omyographically or otherwise, its presence can be in- tions to resolve, case by case, whether an abnormal ICR
ferred from mathematical analysis of the behavior of the is due to muscle spasm, impairment of ligament tension,
segment. Although the tension is not ``seen'', the eects or altered compression stiness of the disc. The neces-
of its force are manifest (just as the presence of an in- sary studies, however, have not yet been conducted. For
visible planet can be detected by the gravitational eects interested clinicians, this eld remains open.
it exerts on nearby celestial bodies).
Upward displacement of an ICR can occur only if
Appendix A. The relationship between horizontal rotation
there is a decrease in translation, or an increase in ro-
and rotation in the plane of the cervical facets
tation, all other variables being normal. This type of
displacement of displacement is most readily produced if
In a plane orientated at an angle of h to the
Żexionąextension is produced in the absence of shear
horizontal plane (Fig. 15), point P rotates to P0
forces, i.e. the segment is caused to rotate only by forces
through and angle PAP0 w, about an axis at A
acting essentially parallel to the long axis of the cervical
0
perpendicular to the plane of motion. AP AP , and
spine. This type of movement occurs during the early
is the radius of rotation in the plane of motion. If P is
phases of whiplash [66], and will explored in a later
set to lie in the horizontal plane, Q is the projection
review.
0
of P in that plane. In the horizontal plane, P appears
to rotate to Q through an angle QAP a. R is the
3.11. Applications
perpendicular projection of Q to AP, and by denition
P0RA is a right angle.
A major, but clinically unexciting, application of
In DRP0A, AR P0A cos w.
ICRs is in the eld of biomechanical modeling. A
In DQRA, QR AR tan a.
challenge for any model is validation. For a model to
0
Therefore, QR P Acos w tan a.
operate, estimates need to be applied of the forces acting
0
In DQP R, QR P0R cos h.
on the vertebrae, such as the compression stiness of the
In DRP0A, P0R P0A sin w.
discs, tension in the capsules and ligaments, and the
0
Therefore, QR P A sin w cos h.
action of muscles. But these estimates usually stem from
Whereupon, P0A cos w tan a P0A sin w cos h
a variety of separate sources. There is no guarantee that
and tana tanw cos h.
when combined into a single model they accurately re-
Żect what happens in a normal cervical spine. One test,
however, is to determine the ICRs produced by the
model as the neck moves.
If the estimates of forces are wrong, their net eect
will be to execute movements about abnormal ICRs.
Conversely, if the resultant movements occur about
normal centres of movement, investigators can be con-
dent that their estimates of forces are realistic. Al-
though possible, it seems highly improbable that
incorrect estimates would accidentally combine to pro-
duce correct ICRs at all segments simultaneously.
This approach to validation has been used to good
eect in the most detailed model of the cervical spine
developed to date [67]. The model generates normal
ICRs at lower cervical segments; but errors obtain at
upper cervical segments. This calls for a renement of
the forces exerted across upper cervical segments, in
terms of the magnitude or direction of the vectors of the
upper cervical muscles, or the details of upper cervical
Fig. 15. In an X ; Y ; Z coordinate system, the plane of a zygapophysial
vertebral geometry.
joint is orientated at h to the horizontal X ; Y ą plane. A point P ro-
More relevant clinically is the potential application of
0
tates in the plane of the joint to P through an angle w about an axis at
ICRs in cervical diagnosis. To date, it has been rmly
A set perpendicular to the lane of the joint. In the horizontal plane, the
established that abnormal ICRs correlate with neck pain rotation of P is projected as a rotation from P to Q through an angle a.
N. Bogduk, S. Mercer / Clinical Biomechanics 15 (2000) 633ą648 647
[24] Dankmeijer J, Rethmeier BJ. The lateral movement in the
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