COLD WAR INTERNATIONAL HISTORY PROJECT BULLETIN, ISSUE 14/15
From the CWIHP Director
espite the end of the Cold War almost a decade-and-a-half experts from around the world. The Russian materials featured in
ago, its legacy still besets US foreign policy and the world the Afghanistan section of this issue, generously provided by
Dat large. Cold War flashpoints, such as North Korea, Cuba, Anatoly Chernyaev, A. A. Lyakhovsky, and the late Vasiliy
Afghanistan, and the Middle East continue to impose important Mitrokhin, allow fascinating insights into Soviet intelligence opera-
challenges on the international community. Recent crises and con- tions in the region, Gorbachev s relationship with Afghan commu-
flicts underline the importance of gaining a better understanding of nist leader Nadjibullah, and the debate over withdrawal from Af-
the sources of these and other countries foreign policies, cultural ghanistan within the Kremlin. Documents from the Bulgarian, East
patterns, and world outlooks. This issue of the Cold War Interna- German, and Hungarian archives provide a glimpse at the bloc-wide
tional History Project (CWIHP) Bulletin highlights recent findings repercussions of the Soviet intervention. Mitrokhin s special con-
from the former Communist world and other international archives tribution, moreover, extends the documentary shadow of the Soviet
on a range of critical issues that affect us today no less than they invasion to the larger history of Soviet policy on the South Asian
concerned policymakers and the public during the Cold War. subcontinent.
Of all the United States former Cold War adversaries, North
Korea poses perhaps the most dangerous security problem. North
Korea s vitriolic and seemingly unpredictable rhetorical outbursts
and actions confront international policymakers on an almost daily
As in past issues, this Bulletin reflects the activities of the
basis, yet information on the inner workings and motivations of this
international network that constitutes the Cold War International
highly secretive country is scarce. To address this significant infor-
History Project. Mark Kramer s edition of Ukrainian archival
mation gap, this issue of the CWIHP Bulletin features a treasure
documents continues CWIHP s effort to document the spill-over
trove of previously unpublished documents from erstwhile com-
effects and repercussions of crises within the Soviet empire, in this
munist allies of the Democratic People s Republic of Korea (DPRK).
case the 1968 invasion of Czechoslovakia.2 Svetlana Savranskaya
The documents are the result of a special effort by the Project to
highlights findings from the October 2002 Havana Conference on
mine the archives of North Korea s former allies. Coordinated by
the 1962 Cuban Missile Crisis. Organized by the National Secu-
Kathryn Weathersby and funded by The Korea Foundation, the
rity Archive in partnership with Brown University s Watson Insti-
CWIHP Korea Initiative has been systematically exploring East
tute for International Affairs and Cuban institutions, the conference
European, Russian, and (to a lesser extent) Chinese archives for
brought together US, Russian, and Cuban veterans of the 1962
insights into perceptions and policymaking in Pyongyang. The
Cuban Crisis.3 The documents introduced by Jim Hershberg and
Korea Initiative presented its first findings at a workshop hosted in
Vladislav Zubok add to CWIHP s unique corpus of Soviet docu-
conjunction with the George Washington University Cold War
ments on the Korean War.4 The Zhivkov Dossier, provided by
Group (GWCW) in March 2003 ( North Korea s Crisis Behav-
Jordan Baev, is the most recent archival coup by CWIHP s Bulgar-
ior, Past and Present: New Light from the Archives of its Former
ian partner, the Cold War Group Bulgaria.
Allies ), at which leading Korea specialists from academia, re-
The Armenian and Georgian archival documents featured in
search centers, and government agencies in the United States, the
this issue are a result of CWIHP s continued cooperation with
Republic of Korea and Eastern Europe provided a first analysis of
Armenian, Azeri, and Georgian (as well as US and Russian) scholars
the significance of the new documents on North Korea.1 The newly
to uncover the hidden history of Soviet policies in the Southern
accessible documentation bears on such questions as North Korea s
Caucasus. They were among the materials presented at a workshop
reaction to aid and external pressures, the internal workings of the
in July 2002 in the Tsinandali Conference Center in the Kakhety
Kim regime and the ideological prism of the North Korean leader-
Valley in Georgia. The workshop was the second meeting held in
ship. The documents were featured in a front-page article in the
the framework of the initiative, Georgia, Armenia, and
Christian Science Monitor in July 2003 ( Files Show a Stubborn
Azerbaijan in the Cold War, launched in the summer of 1999 by
North Korea ). As with other materials that the CWIHP Korea
the National Security Archive and CWIHP. The main goal of the
Initiative is uncovering, the materials are also accessible online
project is to explore the archives in Tbilisi, Yerevan, and Baku to
through CWIHP s Virtual Archive.
determine to what extent Cold War era documents, still classified in
Reading through the Afghanistan section of this Bulletin issue
the central archives in Moscow, would be accessible there, and to
today remains just as eerie an experience as editing the materials by
bring scholars from the three republics into the larger international
defected KGB archivist Vasiliy Mitrokhin s on The KGB in Af-
network of Cold War scholars.5
ghanistan (which the Project published as CWIHP Working Paper
No. 40) while the US and its allies were fighting the Taliban in late
2001 and early 2002. To assess the legacies and lessons of the
Soviet war in Afghanistan in light of new evidence, CWIHP orga-
Since the publication of the last Bulletin, CWIHP has spon-
nized a major international conference on the conflict in April 2002,
sored or co-sponsored a series of conferences in addition to those
Towards an International History of the War in Afghanistan,
mentioned above. Together with CWIHP and the National Security
1979-1989. Held in cooperation with the Center s Asia Program
Archive, the Machiavelli Center for Cold War Studies (CIMA), a
and Kennan Institute, GWCW, and the National Security Archive,
newly created federation of Cold War programs at Italian universi-
the critical oral history meeting centered on newly released and
ties, sponsored a critical oral history conference on The Road to
translated US, Russian, Bulgarian, East German, Czech, and Hun-
Helsinki: The Early Steps of the CSCE in September 2003.
garian documents on the war. Conference participants included
The meeting, held in cooperation with the Parallel History Project
former Soviet officials and National Security Council (NSC), State
on NATO and the Warsaw Pact (PHP), gathered more than a dozen
Department, and Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) officials from
former CSCE diplomats and some fifty scholars to discuss key
the Carter, Bush, and Reagan administrations, as well as scholarly
issues in the national policies and international negotiations that led
1
COLD WAR INTERNATIONAL HISTORY PROJECT BULLETIN, ISSUE 14/15
to the 1975 Helsinki Accords.6 The conference built on an interna- sored by GWCW and the University of California Santa Barbara as
tional conference on the history of détente ( NATO, the Warsaw well as the first Annual Summer Institute on Conducting Archival
Pact, and the Rise of Détente, 1965-1972 ), sponsored by CIMA Research at George Washington University. (For a report by Cam-
and CWIHP in Dobbiaco in September 2002.7 A November 2002 bridge University PhD candidate Sutayut Osornprasop, see http://
conference on Mexico, Central America, and the Caribbean cwihp.si.edu). In September 2003, the Cold War International His-
during the Cold War, held in Mexico City in cooperation with tory Project hosted a pioneering international conference on Cold
Yale University s Council on Latin American & Iberian Studies and War Memory: Interpreting the Physical Legacy of the Cold
the Centro de Investigaciones y Estudios Superiores en Antropologia War. Co-sponsored by the Association of Air Force Missileers,
Social (Mexico City), inaugurated collaborative efforts with Mexi- the Cold War Museum, the German Historical Institute (Washing-
can and other Latin American researchers and archivists to relate the ton, DC), the Harry S. Truman Library, the Woodrow Wilson
Latin American Cold War experience to the emerging international Center s Kennan Institute and organized in cooperation with the
history of the post-1945 world. Norwegian Aviation Museum, the Eisenhower Foundation and
A workshop on China and its Frontier Issue with China s Eisenhower Presidential Library, and the National Coalition for
leading Cold War scholars in the Wuyi Mountains in August 2002 History, the conference was designed to foster a dialogue between
intensified collaborative ties with CWIHP s Chinese partners. In Cold War scholars and individuals and organizations charged with
October 2002, CWIHP co-sponsored a conference with the Insti- interpreting the physical legacy of the Cold War in the United
tute of Political Studies at the Romanian Ministry of Defense and States and abroad. About one hundred cultural resource specialists,
the PHP in Bucharest on Romania and the Warsaw Pact. Show- leading international scholars, Cold War veterans, media and foun-
casing the first major release of documents from the Romanian, dation representatives, government officials, and other profession-
United States, and other archives on the subject, the conference als from around the world met for two intense days to discuss new
drew considerable public attention to problems of access and re- findings on the Cold War and their meaning for the conflict s public
search in Romania. Other meetings (co-)organized and sponsored history. CWIHP is publishing a report on the proceedings of the
by CWIHP included a March 2003 workshop at the Wilson Center meeting on its website.
on the recent declassification of US documents on Argentina s
Dirty Wars 8 (co-sponsored with the Center s Latin American
Program). Pushing the boundaries of international history into the
lives and the communities of peoples the world over, the Interna-
CWIHP also continues its Cold War seminar series at the
tional Security Studies Program at Yale University and CWIHP
Woodrow Wilson Center, designed to bring new findings and publi-
sponsored a meeting on Lives and Consequences: The Local
cations to the attention of Washington s policy and scholarly com-
Impact of the Cold War in April 2003.9 For two days, more than
munity. Recent events included a discussion of Lyndon Johnson
a dozen scholars traced the real-world effects of diplomacy on
and Europe, the new book by former Wilson Center Fellow Tho-
everyday life. In September 2003 the Project teamed up with the
mas Alan Schwartz; a panel on William Taubman s new biography
Finnish Academy of Sciences and the Russian State Archives for a
of Nikita Khrushchev (with commentaries by Clinton Adminis-
conference on The Economic Cold War in Helsinki, exploring
tration Undersecretary of State Strobe Talbott and NPR s Daniel
trade relations and trade embargos during the Cold War.10 Hosted
Schorr) before a standing room-only audience; a discussion of Milton
by the Cold War Research Center in Budapest, directed by former
Bearden s and James Risen s new book on intelligence and the end
CWIHP Scholar Csaba Békés, a November 2003 conference on
of the Cold War ( The Main Enemy ); and book launches for
Central and Eastern European Archival Evidence on the Cold
CWIHP Senior Scholar Hope Harrison ( Driving the Soviets Up
War in Asia produced fascinating new evidence and exchanges on
the Wall ), Jeremi Suri ( Power and Protest ), and Jeffrey Kimball
the impact of the Sino-Soviet rift on the Soviet alliance system and
( The Vietnam War Files ). A full list of the meetings and meeting
intra-bloc relationships. With graduate students and junior scholars
reports is available on the Project s website (http://cwihp.si.edu)
steeped in archival research across the region as central partici-
Thanks to the support by the John D. and Catherine T.
pants, the meeting sponsored by GWCW and co-sponsored by
MacArthur Foundation, the Project was able to award additional
CWIHP was in many ways the international debut of a new genera-
CWIHP scholarships. In 2003, CWIHP hosted Russian scholar
tion of Cold War historians.11 A special CWIHP/GWCW Bulletin
Sergey Mazov (Russian Academy of Sciences) as its most recent
issue will present many of the new materials to the scholarly com-
CWIHP Scholar. During his stay in Washington, Sergey Mazov
munity and public at large.
conducted extensive research on Soviet policy towards West Africa.
The Project was also fortunate to host Melvyn Leffler (University
of Virginia), Jussi Hanhimaki (Graduate Institute, Geneva), Keith
R. Allen (Washington), Marilena Gala (University of Florence)
and Trudy Huskamp Peterson, former acting National Archivist
Broadening the debate on the history of the Cold War and its
and former director of the Open Society Archive in Budapest as
legacy based on new evidence has remained a central focus of
Wilson Center Fellows and Public Policy Scholars.
CWIHP s activities since the publication of the last Bulletin. With
CWIHP has been building its website presence, and the Project
funding from the National Endowment for Humanities, GWCW
is currently restructuring its Virtual Archive of declassified and
and the Cold War International History Project hosted two summer
translated documents to facilitate full-text searching and collating of
institutes for about twenty high-school teachers in 2002-2003 to
original and translated versions of documents. With support from
develop an interactive teaching tool for students. Featured in Hu-
the Andrew Mellon Foundation, CWIHP has been exploring the
manities ( The Unknown Cold War ) in March/April 2003, the
possibilities for developing search engines that would allow har-
project will result in a new website that will provide access to the
vesting across several online archives and collections. Additional
wealth of new documentary resources. Now in its final develop-
web features go online in the spring and summer of 2004.
mental stage, the new site, The Cold War Files-Interpreting
CWIHP s varied activities would not be possible without the
History Through Documents, is set to go online in late 2004.
support of a broadening international network of individuals and
CWIHP also participated in the Graduate Student Conference spon-
2
COLD WAR INTERNATIONAL HISTORY PROJECT BULLETIN, ISSUE 14/15
institutions. The Project is pleased to welcome the establishment of and Richard Thomas, as well as a talented group of interns, in
a Mongolian Cold War Group, host to the March 2004 workshop in particular Jeffrey Becker, Hedi Giusto, Jörn Käsebier, Conor Sa-
Ulaanbaatar. Spurred by the efforts of Sergey Radchenko and former voy, dealt patiently and skillfully with the editorial and production
Wilson Center Fellow Tsedenbar Batbayar, fascinating new materi- demands of an ever growing publication. Finally, I am deeply grate-
als on the Sino-Soviet split are becoming available in the Mongolian ful to this issue s patient contributors.
archives. A November 2003 workshop with Serbian scholars in
Belgrade, organized by Svetozar Rajak of the London School of Christian F. Ostermann
Economics, provided first glimpses at the potential riches of the . . . . . . . .
Yugoslav archives on topics ranging from the Cold War on the Balkans
to the non-alignment movement. Cooperation has also intensified NOTES
1
with a group of Cold War scholars in Tirana (led by Ana Lalaj), who, The conference received generous support from The Henry
with support by CWIHP, are in the process of mining the Albanian Luce Foundation and the Korea Foundation.
2
archives. CWIHP s Italian partner CIMA, led by Ennio Di Nolfo, Conferences on Cold War flashpoints included: Poland 1980-
Massimiliano Guderzo and Leopoldo Nuti, is spearheading a sys- 1982: Internal Crisis, International Dimensions, Jachranka War-
tematic exploration of the Détente years. Following my recent trip saw, 8-10 November 1997, co-organized with the Institute for Po-
to Yalta, Kyiv and Lviv, plans are underway for a Cold War confer- litical Studies of the Polish Academy of Sciences (Warsaw) and the
ence in Ukraine that would build on the work of Mark Kramer and National Security Archive; The Crisis Year 1953 and the Cold War
others featured in this Bulletin issue. Our partners in Beijing and in Europe, Potsdam, 10-12 November 1996, co-organized with the
Shanghai, the Modern History Research Center at Beijing Univer- Center for Contemporary History Research (Potsdam) and the
sity and the Cold War Studies Center at East China Normal Univer- National Security Archive; Hungary and the World, 1956: The
sity are playing central roles in collaborative efforts to assess the New Archival Evidence, Budapest, 26-29 September 1996, co-
history of Chinese foreign policy in a series of meetings over the sponsored with the Institute for the History of the 1956 Hungarian
next three years, sponsored by the Henry Luce Foundation. Thanks Revolution (Budapest) and the National Security Archive; and
to CWIHP Senior Research Scholar Dennis Deletant (University of Czechoslovakia and the World, 1968: The New Archival Evidence,
London) and his partners in Bucharest, we are incrementally gaining Prague, 18-20 April 1994, co-sponsored with The Prague Spring
access to Romanian party, foreign ministry and military archives. 1968 Foundation (Prague) and the National Security Archive. For
Just how significant the archives of smaller powers can be is dem- information on these conferences, see past CWIHP Bulletin, in par-
onstrated by the prolific activities of former CWIHP Fellow Jordan ticular nos. 8/9, 10 and 11. See also Mark Kramer, Ukraine and the
Baev and his colleagues in Sofia. From the Warsaw Pact to Latin Soviet-Czechoslovak Crisis of 1968 (Part 1): New Evidence from
America to Afghanistan, the Bulgarian archives turn out to be an the Diary of Petro Shelest, Cold War International History Project
ever widening backdoor into Soviet policy. CWIHP Senior Scholar Bulletin 10 (March 1998), pp. 234-247.
3
Vojtech Mastny and his colleagues at the Zurich-based Parallel His- The conference featured extraordinary discussions and new
tory Project continue to document the history of NATO and the revelations from the archives from ten countries including memo-
Warsaw Pact. In the future, the Project hopes to intensify its randa of conversation between Cuban and Soviet leaders, detailed
contacts with scholars and institutions in the Middle East, South information on Cuban-Soviet military ties, recently declassified US
and Southeast Asia and well as Africa. intelligence analyses, and new information about nuclear dangers
arising from the crisis that have been unknown until now. See The
Missiles of 1962 Haunt the Iraq Debate, by Todd S. Purdum,
Week In Review, New York Times, 13 October 2002; When the
World Stood on Edge And Nobody Died Beautifully, by Tim
This Bulletin issue and the activities mentioned above would
Wiener, New York Times, 13 October 2002; , Soviets Close to
not have been possible without the generous support by The John
Using A-Bomb in 1962 Crisis, Forum is Told , by Marion Lloyd
D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation (Chicago), The An-
Boston Sunday Globe, 13 October 2002, p. A20; Cold War foes
drew Mellon Foundation (New York), The Henry Luce Foundation
visit Soviet-made missile silo in Cuba, by Anthony Boadle, Reuters
(New York), The Korea Foundation (Seoul), and as well as indi-
English News Service, 13 October 2002; 40 Years After Missile
vidual donors. I am indebted to my colleagues at the Woodrow
Crisis, Players Swap Stories in Cuba, by Kevin Sullivan, Washing-
Wilson Center, in particular Lee H. Hamilton, Michael van Dusen,
ton Post, 13 October 2002, p. A28; Meeting Between Soviet,
Lauren Crowley, Robert Hathaway, Robert Litwak, Blair Ruble,
Cuban and American Officials to Discuss the Cuban Missile Crisis,
and Samuel F. Wells, as well as the members of the CWIHP Advi-
40 Years Later, by Tom Gjelten, Weekend Edition Saturday Na-
sory Committee, chaired by William Taubman, for their steadfast
tional Public Radio, 12 October 2002; , Nightline Cuban Missile
support. CWIHP scholars and partners, in particular Keith Allen,
Crisis, by George Stephanopoulos, ABC News Nightline, 12 Octo-
Jordan Baev, Csaba Békés, Tom Blanton, Gregg Brazinsky, William
ber 2002; Reflections on the Cuban missile crisis, by Randall
Burr, Malcolm Byrne, Sandra Cavalucci, Chen Jian, Massimiliano
Pinkston, CBS Evening News, 12 October 2002. For more informa-
Cricco, Jeffrey Engel, Laura Fasanaro, Ilya Gaiduk, Gary Goldberg,
tion on the conference, see the National Security Archive website:
Jim Goldgeier, Christopher Goscha, Hope Harrison, Jamil Hansanli,
http://nsarchive.org.
Jim Hershberg, Mihail Ionescu, Tvrtko Jakovina, Gilbert Joseph,
4
See in particular the articles and compilations by Kathryn
Karl Kleve, Sue Lamie, Vojtech Mastny, Neamat Nojumi, Leopoldo
Weathersby in CWIHP Bulletins nos. 4, 5, 6-7 and 11.
Nuti, Trudy Huskamp Peterson, Sergey Radchenko, Hannu
5
The first meeting of scholars from Armenia, Azerbaijan, Geor-
Rautkallio, Svetlana Savranskaya, Bernd Schäfer, Thomas Schwartz,
gia, and the United States took place in Tbilisi in October 2000. See
Douglas Selvage, Daniela Spenser, Balazs Szalontai, Shen Zhihua,
CWIHP Bulletin 12/13 (Fall/Winter 2001).
Oldrich Tuma, Yu Weimin, Odd Arne Westad, Kathryn Weathersby,
6
Diplomat-veterans included Ambassador Jim Goodby (US),
David Wolff, and Vladislav Zubok provided essential support in
Ambassador John Maresca (US), Sir Crispin Tickell (UK), Sir Rodric
the making of this issue and the activities underlying it. The Project s
Braithwaite (UK), Ambassador Yuri Kashlev (Russia), Ambassa-
outstanding staff, M. Dee Beutel, Nancy Meyers, Mircea Munteanu,
3
COLD WAR INTERNATIONAL HISTORY PROJECT BULLETIN, ISSUE 14/15
dor Yuri Dubinin (Russia), Ambassador Jacques Andréani (France), spective and Future Challenges, ed. by Cynthia Arnson. For a
Ambassador Nicolae Ecobescu (Romania), Ambassador Luigi Vittorio complimentary copy, please contact the Wilson Center at
Ferraris (Italy) and Ambassador Eduard Brunner (Switzerland). lap@wwic.si.edu. The book was launched in Buenos Aires on 4
7
The conference was organized in the framework of the Paral- December 2003 during a conference on the Dirty War. The meet-
lel History Project on NATO and the Warsaw Pact. ing was covered by Mexico s largest daily: Kissinger pidiĂł acelerar
8
Panelists included Juan Gabriel Tokatlián, San Andrés Uni- la represiĂłn en Argentina: El ex secretario buscaba evitar una condena
versity; Mark Falcoff, American Enterprise Institute; Beatriz Nofal, a la dictadura, El Universal, 5 December 2003, p. 2.
9
Eco-Axis and a former Under-Secretary of Industry and Trade; The conference proceedings, edited by Jeffrey Engel, are
Carlos Osorio, National Security Archive; Carlos Sersale di Cerisano, slated for publication in the CWIHP book series.
10
former director general for human rights in the Argentine Foreign Conference proceedings are to be published.
11
Ministry; Kathryn Sikkink, University of Minnesota; John Dinges,
Additional sponsorship of the conference was provided by
Columbia University School of Journalism; F. A. Tex Harris, a the National Security Archive; The 1956 Institute (Budapest),
political officer in the U.S. Embassy in Buenos Aires at the height of Temple University s Center for the Study of Force and Diplomacy,
the Dirty War; and María José Guembe, Center for Legal and Social the Parallel History Project on NATO and the Warsaw Pact, the
Studies (CELS). The conference proceedings have been published CWIHP Korea Initiative, the London School of Economics Cold
as Argentina-United States Bilateral Relations: An Historical Per- War Studies Program and the University of Virginia s Miller Center
and History Department.
Table of Contents
New Evidence on North Korea
Introduction By Kathryn Weathersby .......................................................................................................... p. 5
Sino-North Korean Conflict and its Resolution during the Korean War By Shen Zhihua ................................. p. 9
Weathering the Sino-Soviet Conflict: The GDR and North Korea, 1949-1989 By Bernd Schäfer ...................... p. 25
You Have No Political Line of Your Own: Kim Il Sung and the Soviets, 1953-1964 By Balázs Szalontai ......p. 87
New Evidence on the Soviet War in Afghanistan
Introduction By Christian F. Ostermann .................................................................................................. p. 139
Gorbachev and Afghanistan Edited and Annotated By Christian F. Ostermann ............................................... p. 143
KGB Active Measures in Southwest Asia in 1980-82 By Vasily Mitrokhin ................................................... p. 193
Why Was There No Second Cold War in Europe? Hungary and the Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan in 1979:
Documents from the Hungarian Archives By Csaba Békés ........................................................... p. 204
Czechoslovakia and the War in Afghanistan, 1979-1989 By Oldrich Tuma ................................................... p. 220
More East-Bloc Sources on Afghanistan ................................................................................................ p. 232
Ukraine and the Soviet-Czechoslovak Crisis of 1968 (Part 2):
New Evidence from the Ukrainian Archives Compiled, Introduced, Translated,
and Annotated By Mark Kramer ................................................................................................. p. 273
New Evidence on Cold War Crises
Russian Documents on the Korean War: 1950-53 Introduction by James G. Hershberg
and translations by Vladislav Zubok ............................................................................................. p. 369
Tactical Nuclear Weapons in Cuba: New Evidence By Svetlana Savaranskaya .............................................. p. 385
Conference Reports, Research Notes and Archive Updates
Cold War in the Caucasus: Notes and Documents from a Conference
By Svetlana Savranskaya and Vladislav Zubok ............................................................................... p. 399
A Cold War Odyssey: The Oswald Files By Max Holland ......................................................................... p. 410
Mongolian Archives By Sergey Radchenko ............................................................................................... p. 419
Todor Zhivkov and the Cold War: Revelations from His Personal Papers ................................................... p. 421
New Central and East European Evidence on the Cold War in Asia ByYvette Chin, Gregory Domber,
Malgorzata Gnoniska and Mircea Munteanu .................................................................................. p. 440
4
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