Chapter VIII AIR AND MISSILE DEFENSE
1. Background
c. Air Defense Action Area. Air defense action area is an area and the airspace above In air and missile defense operations, it within which friendly aircraft or surface-both the Army and the Marine Corps use the to-air weapons
are normally given
same basic doctrine, principles, employment precedence in operations except under guidelines, and IFF procedures. Air and specified conditions.
missile defense are all defensive measures designed to destroy attacking aircraft or d. Air Defense Area. Air defense area is missiles in the earth’s envelope of a specifically defined airspace for which air atmosphere or to nullify or reduce the defense must be planned and provided.
effectiveness of such attacks. Air defense and missile defense operations provide force e. Air Defense Artillery. Air defense protection and contribute to the joint force’s artillery is weapons and equipment for freedom of action. Air defense operations actively combating air targets from the provide for protection of friendly forces, bases, ground.
lines of communication, and selected geopolitical assets through passive air and f. Air Defense Identification Zone missile defense, active defense, and offensive (ADIZ). ADIZ is airspace of defined operations, supported by a command, control, dimensions within which the ready communications, computers, and intelligence identification, location, and control of (C4I) system. Protection encompasses the airborne vehicles are required.
employment of aircraft, interceptor missiles, surface-to-air systems, weapons not g. Air Defense Operations Area. Air primarily used in an air defense role, defense operations area is an area and the deception, operations security (OPSEC), airspace above it within which procedures cover and concealment, dispersion, early are established to minimize mutual warning, and electronic protection.
interference between air defense and other operations. It may include designation of an 2. Terminology
air defense area, air defense action area, The following Joint Pub 1-02 terms serve ADIZ, and/or firepower umbrella.
as a common basis for approaching integrated air and missile defense operations: h. Firepower Umbrella. Firepower umbrella is an area of specified dimensions a. Passive Air Defense. Passive air defining the boundaries of the airspace over defense encompasses all measures, other a naval force at sea within which the fire of than active air defense, taken to minimize ships’ antiaircraft weapons can endanger the effectiveness of hostile air action. These aircraft and within which special procedures measures include deception, dispersion, and have been established for the identification the use of protective construction.
and operation of friendly aircraft.
b. Active Air Defense. Active air defense is direct defensive action taken to nullify the i. Weapons Engagement Zone (WEZ).
effectiveness of hostile air action. It includes WEZ is airspace of defined dimensions within such measures as the use of aircraft, air which the responsibility for engagement of defense weapons, weapons not used primarily air threat normally rests with a particular in an air defense role, and electronic warfare.
weapons system.
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(1) Fighter Engagement Zone (FEZ).
protection of key assets or facilities, other FEZ is that airspace of defined dimensions than air bases, where weapons systems may within which the responsibility for be fired at any target not positively engagement of air threats normally rests recognized as friendly.
with fighter aircraft.
3. DRB Operations
(2) High-altitude Missile Engagement Zone (HIMEZ). HIMEZ is that airspace of defined dimensions within which the The mission of Army ADA is to protect responsibility for engagement of air threats the force and selected geopolitical assets from normally rests with high altitude surface-to-aerial attack, missile attack, and aerial air missiles.
surveillance.
(3) Low-altitude Missile Engagement a. Army Air and Missile Defense Zone (LOMEZ). LOMEZ is that airspace of Equipment.
Two categories of weapons
defined dimensions within which the comprise the Army’s land based ADA arsenal.
responsibility for engagement of air threats The first category, high-to-medium altitude normally rests with low-to-medium altitude air defense (HIMAD) systems include the surface-to-air missiles.
Patriot and Hawk systems. These systems detect, interrogate, track, and perform fire (4) Short-range Air Defense Engage-control functions at extended ranges and in ment Zone (SHORADEZ). SHORADEZ is that virtually all weather conditions, day or night.
airspace of defined dimensions within which Although these systems are not found at the the responsibility for engagement of air DRB level, HIMAD coverage may be threats normally rests with short range air available from the MEF when Army units defense weapons.
operate under its control, the Army corps, or echelons above corps. Forward area air (5) Joint Engagement Zone. Joint defense systems including the Bradley Engagement is that airspace of defined Stinger Fighting Vehicle (BSFV), Avenger dimensions within which multiple air defense system, and Stinger Man-portable Air systems (surface-to-air missiles and aircraft) Defense System (MANPADS) provide low are simultaneously employed to engage air altitude air defense coverage of selected threats.
combat, combat support, or combat service support units and critical assets. Table j. Weapons-free Zone. Weapons-free zone VIII-1 describes the types and characteristics is an air defense zone established for the of Army air defense weapons systems.
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b. DRB Air Defense Equipment. The provides 360-degree azimuth coverage for DRB employs the BSFV, Avenger, Stinger target acquisition and tracking of fixed- and MANPADS, and sensors as described rotary-wing aircraft and UAVs out to a range below:
of 40 km. It provides target location and the capabilities of acquisition and tracking in (1) BSFV. The BSFV combines the electronic countermeasures (ECM) and mobility and armor protection of the Bradley clutter. The FAAD C3I system processes fighting vehicle with the air defense detected targets and, if appropriate, alerts capabilities afforded by the Stinger missile.
and cues forward area air defense system fire The BSFV affords the crew survivability and units or MANPADS teams. A 5-ton cargo the speed commensurate with the truck or HMMWV (for the downsized version) mechanized force it supports. The Stinger serves as the prime mover for the 24-hour, team maintains a basic load of 6 missiles.
all weather-capable GBS.
The team must dismount to engage aerial platforms.
c. DRB ADA Organization. The ADA battalion commander tailors the DRB ADA organization to meet the situation. A typical (2) Avenger.
The Avenger is a
heavy division’s DRB ADA battery normally lightweight,
highly mobile and air
consists of 2 BSFV platoons (4 BSFVs per transportable surface-to-air missile system platoonâ€"total 8 BSFVs); 1 MANPADS
mounted on the HMMWV. Operated by a platoon (total 10 MANPADS); a sensor 2-man crew, the Avenger can provide 24-hour section (total 2 sensors) from the battalion air defense coverage against UAVs, rotary-headquarters; a maintenance platoon; and a wing and low altitude fixed-wing aircraft.
headquarters platoon. The battery is The fire unit integrates 8 Stinger missiles in augmented by 1 or more Avenger platoons if 2 turret-mounted launch pods, a .50-caliber the threat (e.g., cruise missile or UAVs) machine gun, FLIR, eye-safe laser warrants this task organization. An Avenger rangefinder, IFF, heads-up optical sight, and platoon has 4 Avenger weapon systems. The a computerized fire control system. The ADA battalion commander may send the gyrostablized turret permits the gunner to assistant division air defense officer launch a missile or fire the machine gun on (ADADO) and FAAD C3I capabilities to allow the move or from a stationary position. The engagement and force operation linkage to Stinger missiles carried on the Avenger external EW sources.
weapon system are also capable of being reconfigured in a MANPADS configuration.
d. Command and Control (Divisional Air Defense Units Only). Based on recommen-
(3) Stinger.
Stinger is a man-
dations from the senior supporting air portable, shoulder-fired, infrared-homing defense commander, the maneuver brigade (heat seeking) guided missile system. It commander determines the priorities for air requires no control from the gunner after defense coverage, allocation of available air firing. Stinger has an IFF subsystem that defense assets, and air defense command and aids the gunner and team chief in identifying support relationships. The battery com-friendly aircraft.
Limited visibility
mander (or senior supporting air defense operations at night restrict the gunners’
commander) supports brigade operations ability to see and identify the target.
based on the unit mission, commander’s intent, and concept of operations. Successful (4) Sensors. The ground based sensor synchronization of brigade operations (GBS) provides the air defense unit with hinges on including the ADA officer early automated target acquisition and air track and continuously in the planning process.
identification (including IFF). The GBS
(See Figure VIII-l.)
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e. Operations.
organic or attached assets to directly attack hostile aircraft and missiles. These assets (1) Passive Air Defense. The entire include friendly tanks, crew-served weapons, DRB has a role in passive air defense.
intelligence and electronic warfare systems, Measures taken to minimize the effects of attack helicopters, and specific air defense hostile air actions include the use of cover, weapons systems.
concealment, camouflage, deception, dispersion, and protective construction.
(3) FAAD C3I System. DRB air Early warning is essential in alerting the defense systems operate within the larger air maneuver force that hostile air action is defense system that governs division and corps imminent and protective measures must be level air defense operations, The FAAD C3I initiated. Early warning is accomplished by provides automated assistance in FAAD
planning, deploying, and employing sensors operations. The FAAD C3I system consists of with the appropriate communications the following subsystems:
air battle
networks. Sensors are generally employed management operations center (ABMOC), along air avenues of approach to observe A2C2, sensor/C2, battery command posts, named areas of interest and decision points platoon/section command posts, and fire units.
normally designated by the brigade S2.
During offensive operations, sensors are (a) Equipment. These sub-employed throughout a zone to provide early systems are equipped with computers, warning. Covering and security forces’ task displays, voice, and data communications organization normally include FAAD
equipment to aid the accumulation, sensors and Avenger for early engagement processing, and distribution of a correlated air of threat aerial platforms, with particular picture and C3I data. To accomplish the radio focus on surveillance platforms.
frequency communications among the subsystems deployed within an area of (2) Active Air Defense. Maneuver operations, the digital data components of the brigades conducting combat operations use subsystem are connected by SINCGARS/
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Enhanced Position Location Reporting an attacking role.
Destruction or
System (EPLRS) and the Joint Tactical neutralization of enemy airfields, radars, and Information Distribution System (JTIDS).
air defense systems is achieved through preemptive measures, SEAD, and local air
â€Ã³ JTIDS. JTIDS receives air superiority. Air defense is conducted to track data from external track sources.
destroy or nullify the effectiveness of enemy air, missile attacks, and surveillance against
â€Ã³ EPLRS. EPLRS is used for MAGTF forces and/or facilities. MAGTF air internal data communications. It also nets defense is classified as either passive or the sensor/C3I subsystems, the ABMOC, and active.
the A2C2 to exchange air track data, formulates an air picture, and subsequently a. Passive Air Defense. Passive air disseminates air track data, plus battle defense reduces the effects of enemy air management data, to all levels of command attack or surveillance. Passive measures posts and fire units simultaneously.
include such indirect techniques as cover, concealment, camouflage, and deception.
â€Ã³ SINCGARS. SINCGARS pro-
vides voice and data communications b. Active Air Defense. Active air defense capabilities.
is direct action conducted against enemy air assets that are in an attacking or
â€Ã³ Simplified Handheld Terminal surveillance role. Active air defense employs Unit (SHTU). SHTU performs subsystem fixed- and rotary-wing aircraft, missiles, functions in command and control and artillery, and electronic warfare.
provides the air picture to the section CPs and fire units.
5. Command and Control
(b) Early Warning. The ABMOC
The ACE commander, through his TACC, and air defense A2C2 receive air tracks from coordinates MAGTF AAW. Mutual support external sources such as the Airborne and centralized command and coordination/
Warning and Control System (AWACS) and decentralized control facilitate AAW. Mutual HIMAD air defense units. The ABMOC
support is accomplished by positioning AAW
transmits those tracks to sensors tactically weapons so that each air target is within located throughout the battlefield. The range of several air defense systems, both sensors receive that data and correlate with concurrently and sequentially. Centralized their own data (40 km GBS) and send that command and coordination permit the best data to units for engagement. Voice use of available forces while decentralized procedures still accomplish early warning to control permits minimum reaction time and maneuver forces: battery to brigade and maximum flexibility. The sector antiair platoon to battalion.
warfare coordination (SAAWC) manages the MAGTF’s air defense battle. Depending on the size of the MAGTF area of operations, 4. MEF (FWD) Operations there may be more than one SAAWC. Under SAAWC guidance, the TAOC provides control All MAGTFs conduct air and missile of AAW assets and AAW surveillance of defense as part of the AAW function as assigned airspace. AAW surveillance and
described in Chapter VII. Successful AAW
control are augmented through separately gains and maintains air superiority. AAW is established early warning/control sites. Like based on destruction in depth and begins as the SAAWC, one or more TAOCs with far forward as possible with offensive AAW.
accompanying early warning control site(s) Offensive AAW attacks enemy aircraft and are employed within a MAGTF’s area of missile assets before they launch or assume operations. Factors influencing the number VIII-5
of TAOCs and early warning control sites personnel detect, identify, and control the employed within an area of operations intercept of hostile aircraft and missiles.
include the geographical size, terrain Early warning control sites are established features impacting on radar acquisition, and to supplement organic TAOC radar coverage anticipated air activity in the area. Figure if required. The SAAWC coordination of VIII-2 portrays the MAGTF air defense overall AAW operations facilitate the ability system.
of the TAOC to concentrate on real-time control of fighter aircraft and surface-to-air a. The SAAWC. The SAAWC operates weapons.
from a SAAWC operations facility that normally collocates with the TAOC. The operations facility furnishes the SAAWC and 6. MEF (FWD) Air and Missile Defense staff the capability to coordinate and direct Organizations and Equipment TAOC operations to survey and direct MAGTF AAW assets within its assigned a. Assets. Organic ACE assets include area, The facility receives representatives fixed- and rotary-wing aircraft and surface-from various MACCS organizations, but to-air missiles (SAMs). The fixed- and rotary-primarily from the TAOC. The SAAWC
wing aircraft are organic to ACE aircraft executes responsibilities for coordination squadrons; missile assets are organic to and management of all active AAW assets Hawk and Stinger AAW units.
within assigned area through these functional representatives.
(1) Aircraft. Almost any of the fixed-or rotary-wing ACE aircraft have some AAW
b. The TAOC. The TAOC provides capability. As a minimum, any aircraft may control, management, and surveillance of be tasked as an AAW surveillance platform.
assigned assets and airspace.
TAOC
Attack helicopters may be employed as AAW
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assets when armed with air-to-air weapons.
(FWD) and MEF-sized MAGTFs are The primary MAGTF fixed-wing AAW asset supported by LAAD batteries and battalions, is the F/A-18 Hornet; however, the AV-8
respectively. Organic HMMWVs provide Harrier may be employed in a secondary firing teams high mobility. Fire team leaders AAW role. Employment of fixed- and rotary-exercise final firing authority for LAAD
wing aircraft in AAW roles will be dependent teams.
on the existing situation. Chapter VII
detailed MAGTF aircraft capabilities.
b. AAW Surveillance and Control Systems. MAGTF AAW surveillance and (2) Surface to Air Missiles. MAGTF
control systems are limited to ground-based SAM capabilities are organic to the LAAM
systems.
Ground-based surveillance
and low altitude air defense (LAAD) units.
capabilities include TAOC and MATCD
surveillance radars, Hawk acquisition (a) LAAM Units. LAAM units radars, electrooptic systems, and LAAD team are equipped with the Hawk surface-to-air visual surveillance.
missile system. LAAM units provide all-weather, day and night, medium-range air (1) The long-range radars of the defense. The LAAM battalion is composed TAOC provide range surveillance out to 300
of a headquarters and service battery and 3
nautical miles (NM), limited by LOS and firing batteries. Each firing battery includes earth curvature restrictions. They provide 2 firing platoons of 2 firing sections each, and primary radar azimuth, range, and altitude 1 sensor acquisition section (SAS). The SAS
information up to 100,000 feet (ft). In has 1 continuous wave acquisition radar addition, they provide identification of (CWAR), 1 pulse acquisition radar (PAR), and friendly aircraft through electronic 2 high-power illuminator radars (HIPIR).
interrogations.
The TAOC’s primary air
Each firing platoon includes 3 launchers with surveillance radar is being modified to 3 missiles per launcher. Each platoon is provide a 400 NM, 500,000 ft altitude ceiling capable of engaging 2 targets simultaneously.
capability to provide the MAGTF an organic Though task organized to meet anticipated TBM detection capability.
air threat, 1 or more LAAM firing batteries normally support a MEF (FWD) (12 Hawks (2) The shorter-range radars of the per battery); a LAAM battalion (36 Hawks) TAOC, which can deploy as gap-filler radars normally supports a MEF. When paired with for the longer range radars, are limited by the TAOC’s AN/TPS-59 long-range air the same LOS factors. They provide primary surveillance radar, the Hawk system has a radar azimuth and range up to 150 NM.
limited capability to engage short-range They also have a capability to electronically theater ballistics missiles.
identify friendly aircraft.
(b) LAAD Units. LAAD firing (3) The short-range MATCD sur-units currently employ MANPADS and the veillance radars provide primary and Avenger missile system. LAAD units provide secondary radar azimuth, range, and altitude low-altitude, short-range air defense for information in the airfield areas.
forces in forward combat areas or other assigned areas. The LAAD battalion consists (4) The Hawk search radar provides of a headquarters and service battery and 2
roughly the same surveillance capability as firing batteries. Each of the 2 firing batteries the shorter-range TAOC radars (120 km) has 3 firing platoons equipped with 15
with an altitude coverage to 55,000 ft.
Stinger teams each. Smaller MAGTFs (i.e., Secondary radar is provided by a separate MEUs) are supported by platoons as platform with limited IFF discrete decode appropriate to METT-T considerations. MEF
capability.
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(5) The Hawk low-altitude acqui-attached or OPCON to maneuver units are sition radar provides excellent low-level further attached or placed under the surveillance coverage in azimuth and ranges operational control of an air defense unit out to 80 km and up to 10,000 ft.
within the maneuver force.
(6) The Hawk tracking radar is (2) Support Relationships.
limited in its surveillance function by field of view, operator load, weather, and other (a) Direct Support. A direct environmental factors; therefore, it is only support mission furnishes a specific element an augmenting system.
of the joint force dedicated air defense support.
(7) LAAD visual acquisition is particularly good against low-altitude targets when teams are placed along ingress routes (b) Reinforcing. An air defense unit with a reinforcing mission augments the and given limited sectors to cover. Altitude, coverage of another air defense unit weather, and environmental factors severely committed to a specific element of the force.
limit their surveillance capability.
Assigning this mission commits both the reinforcing and reinforced air defense units 7. Integrated Air and Missile Defense Operations
to that specific element.
a. Command and Support Relationships.
(c) General Support Reinforcing.
Relationships between air defense units and A general support reinforcing mission results other units may be either command or in an air defense unit supporting the force support. The JFC establishes relationships as a whole with a second priority to based on the estimate of the situation and augmenting the coverage of another air the recommendation of the area air defense defense unit.
commander (AADC).
(d) General Support. Air defense (1) Command Relationships.
units with general support missions support the force as a whole.
(a) Operational Control. The parent organization retains administrative
Table VIII-2 describes the recommended
and logistic responsibilities, unless the order command and support relationships and states otherwise, when placing an air defense inherent responsibilities to guide the unit OPCON to another unit. OPCON is planning and operational employment of air appropriate for tactical operations of defense outfits.
generally short duration requiring dedicated air defense.
b. Organizing for Combat.
(b) Attachment. The supported (1) Organizing air defense units for force provides administrative and logistic combat proceed from the application of four support to attached air defense units. An air basic employment principles of weapons defense unit may be attached to a maneuver mass, weapons mix, mobility, and integration unit on an extended, independent operation to METT-T conditions.
where the parent air defense battalion cannot provide effective support.
(a) Weapons Mass: The allocation of a sufficient amount of air defense (c) Further
Attachment or
resources to destroy the enemy air threat to OPCON. When possible, air defense units the defended asset.
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(b) Weapons Mix: The employ-task organization. Additional considerations ment of a complementary family of weapons, includeâ€"
wherein the capabilities of one system offset the limitations of another system.
(a) Proportional weighing of the main effort.
(c) Mobility: The ability of a unit to maneuver as easily as the unit it is (b) Allocation of available assets supporting.
to protect critical force assets in priority.
(d) Integration: Synchronized (c) C3 capabilities.
employment of air defense units and systems within the concept of operation and scheme (d) Logistics supportability: Can of maneuver.
the ADA unit support itself completely or will it need assistance from the supported unit?
(2) Considerations for Air Defense Task Organization. The joint force seeks to (e) Impact of other air defense deploy the best possible weapons mass and assets in the area of operation.
mix to support the scheme of maneuver. The supported force’s mission, commander’s (f) Air defense assets are not intent, and concept of operation drive force held in reserve.
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(g) Preclusion of excessive unit team collocates with the Marine TACC to movement.
assist in airspace coordination and air defense planning and operational execution.
(h) Assigned mission consistent with situation.
(2) MEF (FWD) Corps Liaison Requirements.
The MEF (FWD) normally
(i) Task organization accom-provides 2 liaison elements to the corps that modates transitions to branches or sequels facilitate planning and advice on the to the operational plan.
MAGTF’s air defense capabilities and employment. One element collocates with c. Liaison.
the corps A2C2 element at the corps main to assist in air defense planning; the second (1) DRB-MEF Liaison Requirements.
collocates with the corps ADA brigade TOC
The DRB requires 2 liaison teams to to coordinate air defense execution.
establish necessary air defense liaison with the MEF. Recommended team personnel include a company grade officer, an d. Air Defense Control Measures.
experienced noncommissioned officer, and one enlisted specialist; team equipment Joint Pub 3-56.1 governs use of air consists of an AM/FM radio-equipped defense control measures germane to USA-HMMWV. One team collocates with the USMC operations. Figures VIII-3 and VIII-
SAAWC operations facility/TAOC as subject
4 depict dissemination of measures during
matter experts on the DRB’s air defense integrated operations between the MEF and capabilities and employment and facilitates DRB and between the corps and MEF (FWD) information flow and exchange. A second respectively.
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