Issue 28 June 2001
ISSN: 1531-1910
Complex Weavers
Medieval Textiles
Coordinator: Nancy M McKenna 507 Singer Ave. Lemont, Illinois 60439 e-mail: nmckenna@mediaone.net
In this issue:
Woven Viking Wall Hanging
Woven Viking Wall Hanging p.1
By Jacqueline James, York 2001
Medieval Color and Weave Textiles p.1
Hangings About The Hall p.3
One of the most interesting custom orders I have ever
The Discovery of Woad Pigment p.7
undertaken was in 1989 when I was approached by
A Renaissance Cheese p.7
Heritage Projects Ltd. and asked to weave a wall
Trade Cloaks p.8
hanging for permanent display in one of the recon-
structed houses at the Jorvik Viking Centre,
Coppergate, York.
Medieval Color & Weave Textiles
by Nancy M. McKenna
Research for the project began with consultation with
Penelope Walton Rogers at the textile conservation
Color has always been important to people. As noted
lab of York Archeological Trust. I was privileged to
in Textiles and Clothing, plaids are not uncommon in
see some of the results of Penelope s research of
textile fragments from Coppergate Viking-age site.
One of the woven fragments I examined was thought
to have originated from a curtain or wall hanging. The
sample, wool twill 1263, was used as a reference to
determine the fiber content, weave structure, sett and
dye I would use to produce the woven fabric. Al-
though the piece has two adjacent hemmed sides, and
is not square, it is easily seen that it has been pulled
out of square by hanging from the corner and other
points along one edge, an indication of it having been
used as a wall hanging or curtain. Another interesting
feature of this textile is a single s thread that turns
back upon itself to create a gore in the fabric. This is
indicative of being woven on a warp-weighted loom
where no spacing device is used to keep the warp
Figure 1: From Textiles & Clothing,
evenly distributed. Because this gore can only occur
Fabric #172. Only madder was
in the weft, it also indicated the direction of the warp,
detected on this cloth, the background
which is a Z spun system.
being pink and the stripes being near balck. Because
of waterlogged conditions, it is suggested that the
The completed wall hanging measured 45 x 75 and
background may have been origionally undyed. Late
was made with 5s Z-twist wool yarn dyed red with
14 c.
madder root. I dyed the yarn prior to the weaving
the medieval period. They have been found in many
process. The structure used was balanced 2/2 twill
areas of Europe, and even in China. As a general rule,
with a 12 epi sett. As I do not have a warp weighted
older textiles are generally woven in 2/2 twill, and
loom, commonly used during the Viking era, the
later textiles in tabby. Diamond twills often use color
weaving was done on my Glimakra countermarche
in one direction and another in the other to show the
loom. The finished fabric was washed, but not fulled.
pattern formed by the weaving. Textiles woven in
A small hem was hand stitched along all four sides.
cont d on page 2 Cont d on page 6
1
Complex Weavers Medieval Textile Study Group
Color & Weave cont d from page 1
Slavic nations were more likely to have warp or weft
dominant stripes in color.
Hems and cuffs from clothing are areas most likely to
have a color and weave pattern, even if the rest of the
Figure 5: Textiles
garment is solid in color. & Clothing cloth
sample #7. 36
threads per inch in
Figure 2:
both warp and
Textiles &
weft, woven of
Clothing, cloth
worsted singles.
sample #275.
Colors are those of
Pink and
natural dark and
Black, madder
light wool.
is the only dye
detected. Late
14 c.
Figure 3: From Textiles &
Clothing, cloth sample #38, #329
& #159. Worsted, fine (merino
range) to medium wool. This
Figure #6: Textiles &
cloth was used to line buttoned
Clothing cloth sample #9.
garments the outer fabric of each
Natural and madder dyed
was coarser. Range of thread
wool.
count is 8 to 28 threads/cm. In the
case of textile #329 this wool was
used as the outer cloth as well as
the lining.
Earlier clothing was constructed of squares of cloth as
woven, with seams along selveges, and gores added
for ease of movement (for example, the woman s
costume from Huldremose, 2nd Century AD in the
Danish National Museum). And who can forget
Boadicea who is described by the Roman historian
Cassius Dio thusly:
In person she was very tall, with the most sturdy figure
and a piercing glance; her voice was harsh; a great mass
of yellow hair fell below her waist and a large golden
necklace clasped her throat; wound about her was a tunic
of every conceivable color [possibly plaid] and over it a
thick chlamys... (Payne, Blanche: History of Costume,
1965)
Later clothing was often constructed on the bias.
Thought to be a symptom of conspicuous consump-
tion by the upper classes, this construction method is
shown more in images than found in samples, al-
Figure 4: Textiles & Clothing cloth sample #64. Colors
are natural, madder dyed red, and a darker color, dye though the small size of samples found in the archeo-
material unknown. This pattern is found as early as the
logical record may make judgement calls as to which
6th and 7th C but in twills. Originally a firmly woven
direction the cloth was oriented in a garment difficult.
cloth that did not ravel when cut, this sample was part of
a buttoned sleeve. Color & Weave cont d on page 6
2
Issue 28 June 2001
His York hall displayed a complete halling set in
THE HANGINGS ABOUT THE HALL :
matching blue say cloth (for textile definitions see
An Overview of Textile Wall Hangings in Late
below). This comprised a dorser (hung at the back -
Medieval York, 1394-1505
ad dorsum - of the high table) thirteen yards long by
By Dr. Charles Kightly
four yards deep, with two costers (for the side walls)
each nine yards long by two and a half yards deep. One
Introduction
bench was draped with a matching blue banker (lined
This brief survey attempts to answer some of the
with canvas, perhaps to stop it slipping) eight yards long
questions I have been asked about wall hangings in late
and twenty-seven inches deep, and equipped with ten
medieval York houses: who owned them; which rooms
matching feather-filled cushions: even the hall cupboard
were they used in; how were they hung; what were they
had a matching blue say cupboard cloth . All this blue
made of, what did they look like, and how much did
was set off by a contrasting red say banker, more
they cost? It deals essentially with the fifteenth century,
valuable than the rest and thus perhaps used to drape
and draws mainly on three collections of York manuscript
the high table benching. The complete halling was valued
archives: the Dean and Chapter Wills in York Minster
at Ł2 12/10d, and in addition Duffield owned a set of
Library [A in text references], and the Dean and Chapter
matching worsted hangings in blue (clearly his
Inventories [B] and the Diocesan Will Registers [C] in
favourite colour) for his principal bedchamber , valued
the Borthwick Institute of Historical Research. Its
at 9/10d, and a third set of red worsted hangings, valued
concern is domestic wall-hangings and -where these
at nearly Ł1, for his second chamber .
formed part of a room-set - related textile accessories
like bankers (seat covers) and cushions: domestic bed-
The three sets of hangings bequeathed by Agnes Selby
hangings and hangings in churches are excluded. Even
(d. 1464 A.) - to take another example from the upper
within its remit, moreover, the survey does not claim to
end of the scale - were probably rather more costly,
be comprehensive.
though their value is not recorded. The best set included
hangings, banker and six cushions all of Arraswerke
Wall hangings are very frequently recorded in late
(imported Flemish tapestry), while the second and third
medieval York wills and inventories. This survey alone
sets in red and green (cloth?) were accompanied,
covers more than fifty such documents (1394-1505)
intriguingly, by sets of cushions decorated cum
which describe the colour, material, subject or size of
Werwolfes - an unusual and perhaps rather disturbing
hangings, leaving aside many others where merely their
device, but doubtless useful conversation pieces.
existence is noted. Their ownership spans the whole
range of the York will-making classes , from leading
Agnes Selby belonged to a wealthy Lord Mayoral
citizens and wealthy clerics with multiple sets of
dynasty, intermarried with the minor aristocracy: but
matching hallings and chamberings in tapestry or
far less prosperous York citizens also owned complete
fine wool, valued in pounds, down the single cheap
room-sets of hangings, even if these were in distinctly
painted cloths , worth a few pence, owned by modest
inferior materials like painted cloths . The estate of
craftsmen or poor widows.
John Colan (d. 1490 B), a German-born goldsmith living
in rented property off Stonegate (near the restored
From the household inventories which furnish a room-
Barley Hall ), was for instance valued at less than Ł10
by-room breakdown of goods, it is clear that wall-
after payment of debts. Yet his small hall displayed a
hangings were most frequently displayed only in the
set of four hangings of green colour with flowers -
hall or its equivalent, although in a few late cases they
doubtless painted cloths , since their total value was
are recorded only in the principal bedchamber. The
only 2/8d - together with three red (cloth?) bankers (value
slightly better-off might afford hangings both in the hall
10d) and a dozen old red cushions , at 1/6d. His
and a single bedchamber or parlour - the most valuable
parlour , meanwhile, had two individual hangings
items being in the hall - while the wealthy possessed
(again doubtless painted cloths) depicting the Trinity
complete sets of hangings for several bedchambers.
and the images of St. George and the Virgin Mary ,
valued at only 3d each.
Among the most minutely described of these multiple
sets belonged to William Duffield (d. 1452), a wealthy
The fact that the appraisers conscientiously recorded
pluralist cleric who held canonries at Beverley and
the exact dimensions of Colan s hall hangings - an
Southwell as well as York Minister, his principal base.
admirable York practice - allows us at least to guess at
3
Complex Weavers Medieval Textile Study Group
how such modest pieces were arranged. Two of them description and price suggest that these may have been
were each four yards and two three yards long, but they embroidered hangings, as may also have been Canon
were only four and a half feet deep, suggesting that they Thomas Morton s (d. 1448 B) green and red paled say
were hung in strips above the raised backs of a fixed cloth hallings with the arms of Archbishop Bowet , or
bench running round three or four sides of a small room. his red say set with the arms of St. Peter . If so, the
Canon Duffield s seven and a half foot deep costers - embroidered heraldry may have been embroidered using
given a higher room - may have been hung in the same the couching technique, and certainly the alderman s
way, though his twelve foot deep dorser perhaps widow Matilda Danby (d. 1459 C) owned a couched
extended from ceiling to floor (fig. 1). hallyng .
Such hangings - and even costly tapestries, as evidenced Hangings of plain woollen cloth, however, were far more
by the perforations in surviving examples would common than either tapestry or embroidered hangings:
generally have been suspended from iron tenterhooks apart from painted cloths, indeed, they are the type most
driven into the wall, either by direct snagging or via often recorded in York documents. Occasionally (as in
rings sewn onto the fabric. York indeed possesses the William Duffield s chamber) the fabric is called
only contemporary illustration I know of this practice, worsted , but generally it is called say , a light but
in panels A/2/2 and A/3/2 of the fifteenth century St. closely-woven woollen serge which (given some changes
William Window in the Minster north-east transept in specification) remained universally popular for wall
(fig.2). There Roger of Ripon, mounted on a very and bed-hangings from the fifteenth until the mid
precarious self-propping ladder is shown fixing up a seventeenth century.
wall hanging as a stone block accidentally drops on his
head. He was however saved from death by the Say hangings might be of a single colour: Duffield s
miraculous intervention of St William, as the inscribed were mainly blue (an expensive colour to dye) but the
block itself - now in the Minster undercroft - still survives cheaper red and green are also often recorded. Very
to prove. popular, too, were hangings of paled say , woven in
pales or vertical stripes of equal width in two
Tapestries, Embroidered Hangings and Woollen Says contrasting colours, generally red and green. Such
The hanging shown in the St William window appears hangings could be expensive. Archbishop Bowet s (d.
to represent striped and damask-patterned silk brocade, 1423) sumptuous new red and green paled halling set
an expensive imported textile often depicted by was valued at over Ł8 - perhaps because it included
contemporary artists, but for which I have found no embroidered heraldry - but Thomas Baker s (d. 1436
evidence in York wills. There the most valuable hanging- B) red and green halling was probably more typically
fabric mentioned was probably woven Arras (like valued at only 5/-. Both Hugh Grantham (d. 1410 B)
Agnes Selby s) or tapestry werk , and even this is and Hawise Aske (d. 1451 B) had paled hangings in
uncommon, probably because of its cost. A black and red, while those of John Crackenthorp esquire
contemporary inventory from outside York (that of the (d. 1467 C) were more unusually paled in three colours,
very wealthy Sir Thomas Burgh of Gainsborough, red, white and blue. This last, however, may perhaps
Lincolnshire, d. 1496, P. R. O. Probate 2/124) shows have been a painted cloth rather than a say hanging.
that even low-grade tapestry had a second-hand value
of around 8d the yard, while a yard of figured imagery
Painted cloths
werk tapestry containing gold thread was valued at 2/-
In York, as throughout England, painted cloths were
or more. The complete set of hangings, bankers and
much the most popular cheap wall hangings from the
cushions de opere tapestre belonging to the York
late medieval period until the mid seventeenth century.
innkeeper Robert Talkan (d. 1415 B) must have been of
The earliest York reference I have found is to a painted
the cheaper sort, since it totalled only 33/4d. Even so, it
dorser belonging to John de Birne, rector of St.
was valued at over twice the price of the red and blue
Sampson s, who died in 1394 (C). Their great attraction
cloth set with which it shared his hall.
was that they offered brightly coloured and often
figurative wall decoration - much cheaper to paint than
The red hangings and bankers with the arms of Lord
either to embroider or to work in tapestry - at a very low
Hastings in Talkan s chamber, conversely, was valued
cost. The shop stock of the York tailor John Carter (d.
at 66/8d, twice the price of his tapestries. Their
1485 B), for example, included twelve yards of panetyd
4
Issue 28 June 2001
clothes at 2/8d, or only 2_d a yard, while that of the Lyndesay (d. 1397 B), parish clerk of All Saints North
chapman Thomas Gryssop (d. 1446 B) included six Street, which depicted the image of Christ sitting in the
whole painted cloths (admittedly old ) at 5/- the lot. clouds . John Underwode, clerk of the vestry at York
Their cheapness, however, was counterbalanced by their Minster (d. 1408 A), had a cloth of the Last
lack of durability: experiments with authentically Resurrection , Henry Thorlthorp (d. 1427 B) and John
produced modem replicas have shown that they degrade Danby (d. 1485 A), vicars choral, both had cloths with
quite rapidly, especially when the painted surface is the Crucifix ; and cloths with the Trinity are recorded
cracked or damaged by rolling or folding for storage. for the goldsmith John Colan (d. 1490 B); the widow of
For this reason their second-hand value could be very Thomas Person (d. 1496 A), and John Clerk, chaplain
low indeed. The most expensive York example was of St Mary Magdalen chapel (d. 1451 B), whose hanging
Richard Dalton s (1505 B) complete painted hallings at also depicted St. John the Baptist and St. John the
7/-, but their average second-hand value seems to have Evangelist. These two saints also appeared on a cloth
been only one or two pence a yard, and two whole cloths belonging to John Tidman, chaplain at All Saints, North
belonging to Henry Thorlthorp, vicar choral (d. 1427 Street (d. 1458 C), who likewise owned painted hangings
B) were appraised at only a penny each. with a great image of the Virgin and with the history
of the Five Joys of the Virgin . Agnes del Wod (d. 1429
The low value and ephemeral nature of painted cloths A) favoured images of St. Peter and St. Paul; William
has ensured a very low survival rate, and no indisputably de Burton, vicar of St. Mary Bishophill (d. 1414 A) had
medieval English examples are known to exist. Analysis a cloth with the history of St. Thomas of Canterbury ;
of Elizabethan and later cloths carried out for Barley and John Colan (d. 1490 B) one with the Virgin Mary
Hall - has however shown that they were generally made and St. George ; while both John Kexby, Chancellor of
of coarse linen canvas, thoroughly sized with animal- York Minster (d. 1452 B) and Janet Candell (d. 1479
skin size and then painted with inexpensive pigments C) owned cloths depicting the Seven Works of Mercy .
including red and yellow ochres, red lead, verdigris, lead Secular subjects were seemingly much rarer, though the
white, lamp black and vegetable (weld) yellow. Stencils vicar of Acomb, Henry Lythe (d. 1480 A) had a halling
may have been used for repeating patterns. painted of Robyn Hude .
As elsewhere in England, York painted cloths seemingly
Conclusion
imitated more expensive types of hangings. Some were
A brief survey of the very rich archival resources surely
painted in vertical stripes to resemble paled says , and
demonstrates that wall hangings and related textile
others imitated boscage and millefleurs tapestries.
accessories were an important element of even quite
Thus Alice Langwath (d. 1466 C) had a painted cloth
modest house interiors in York. Nor is there much reason
with roses ; John Colan (d. 1490 B) green cloths with
to doubt that a similar situation obtained in other
flowers ; Thomas Baker (d. 143 6 B) two cloths with
communities less blessed with surviving documentation.
batylments ; Thomas Northus, vicar choral (d. 1449 A)
It follows that such interiors were considerably more
one with an eagle in the middle ; William Coltman (d.
comfortable and much more colourful than is even now
1481 B) two cloths with certain birds , and Richard
generally recognized or admitted. Thus the bare stone
Dalton (d. 1505 B) one with trees .
walls or wealth of exposed timbering which are still
the norm for modern representations of the later Middle
More intriguing are the painted cloths which imitated
Ages - and for the great majority of medieval houses
tapestry of imagery work by depicting figurative
displayed to the public - give a seriously false and
religious subjects. Though particularly favoured by
misleading impression of medieval domestic life.
poorer clerics, many of these were also owned by York
lay people, and the descriptions in the documents throw
Further reading
welcome light on the domestic iconography of York
Though much has been written about tapestries proper,
houses. We can only guess at their appearance, but it is
lower-grade medieval hangings like those described here
at least possible that some may have resembled in style
have been little studied, and painted cloths scarcely at
the illustrations in the Book of Hours locally produced
all.
in c. 1430 for the Bolton family, and now in York Minster
Crowfoot et al., Textiles and Clothing c.1150-1450
Library (Add.MS.2).
(HMSO: Museum of London 1991) is the best technical
cont d on page 6
Among the earliest described belonged to Robert
5
Complex Weavers Medieval Textile Study Group
Hangings, cont d from page 5 Color & Weave, cont d from page 2
work, though it naturally refers mainly to London.
The emergence of these garments is consistent with
K. Staniland, Medieval Craftsmen: Embroiderers
the removal of the poor from their small towns in
(British Museum 1991) is invaluable on its subject, and
England so that large landowners can annex the land
A. and A. Gore, The History of English Interiors
to graze their increasing flocks of sheep raised for
(Phaidon 1991) has a chapter on the medieval period
wool. This was coupled with the importation of
with reference to hangings.
Flemish weavers and government (Edward III)
pressure to increase wool and cloth production in the
Tudor and later interiors are rather better covered, and
late 14th century AD. Although this caused an
the following have useful references back to medieval
increase in crime in some areas, it meant an increase
furnishing textiles:
in opportunity for spinners and weavers as well as an
increase in overall productivity which corresponded to
V. Chinnery, Oak Furniture: The British Tradition
an increase in disposable income across all classes of
(Antique Collectors Club 1979)
society.
G. Beard, Upholsterers and Interior Furnishing in
England, 1530-1840 (Yale 1997)
P. Thornton, Seventeenth-Century Interior
Figure 7: detail redrawn from
Decoration in England, France and Holland (Yale
The Martyrdom and Death of St.
1978).
Vincent by the Master of
Estamariu, dated the second half
This article was first published in Medieval Life:
of the 14th c. The Plaid is
http://www.medieval-life.co.uk
composed of wide red and
Dr. Kightly is best known for his involvement with the
narrow black warp & weft stripes
York Achaeology Trust and Barley Hall in York, England
on a green ground. St Vincent of
Valencia, Spain was martyred on
the blazing gridiron in 304 AD.
Viking Wall Hanging cont d from page 1
Madder Dye with Alum mordant (for 1 lb. of wool):
Figure 8: redrawn
Mordant:
detail from the
4 oz alum Retable of St. Jean,
dated mid 14 c. The
1 oz cream of tartar
reproduction this is
4 gallons of water
sketched from was in
black and white. The
Dye: Dissolve pound of madder root powder in 4
ground is medium in
gallons of water. Add 1 pound mordanted, whetted
color with dark wide
wool. Bring temperature to 185 degrees F maintain
and white narrow
heat for 1 hour, stirring occasionally. Allow wool to
stripes in the warp
steep in dye bath overnight. Rinse thoroughly.
and weft.
Jacqueline James of York, England established her
weaving business in 1989. She specializes in making
Sources of Further Information:
individually designed hand-woven rugs and wall hang-
Bender-Jorgensen, Lise. Textiles & Clothing until 1000
ings for commission and exhibition. Her work is in public
AD
and private collections in the UK and USA. Major
commissions include weavings for Westminster Abbey,
Moore, Ellen Wedenmeyer, Medieval English Fairs:
York Minister and Blackburn Cathedral.
Evidence from Winchester and St. Ives, Pathways to
Medieval Peasants, ed. J. A. Raftis (Toronto, 1981)
A photograph in color of this wall hanging can be seen in
Chromotography and Analysis, June 1991 p.7
Tompkins, Ken. Wharram Percy, The Lost Medieval
More of her work can be viewed at:
Village.
http://loki.stockton.edu/~ken/wharram/wharram.htm
http://www.handwovenrugs.co.uk/
6
Issue 28 June 2001
textile products: towels, scarves, and more. Decora-
The Discovery of Woad Pigment
tive products such as bead necklaces and earrings and
By: Gayle Bingham
other beautiful items are available. The video pro-
duced by Henri and Denise is excellent. So you see,
As most of you know, I have been dyeing with woad
you will find many temptations on their website.
for many years. It is my very favorite source of blue
dye. In the past, I have used the fresh woad leaves for
As a confirmed woad dyer, I am so thankful that the
dyeing. And, as textile dyers, we know, it takes a
production of woad pigment in our modern world has
large amount of woad leaves to dye a small amount of
been revived. And to have such wonderful people as
fiber or yarn. So you will understand my joy upon
Henri and Denise Lambert in charge of this company,
discovering a source of woad pigment.
adds to the joy, for me. There is no other blue that
gives the warmth and ethereal quality than woad blue.
With many discoveries, there is a certain amount of
serendipity. This certainly was true for me. It all
began with a magazine article found by a friend. This
A Renaissance Cheese
feature article told about Catherine Haeden s shop, in
By: Gayle Bingham
Toulouse, France, named: La Fleuree de Pastel, where
woad dyed products are sold. The word for woad, in
Several months ago, I discovered a delightful Renais-
French, is pastel. Also, the article mentioned, Henri
sance cheese. This discovery was made at The
Lambert, the manufacturer of woad pigment and
Central Market in San Antonio, Texas. When my
woad products. I sent a letter to Ms. Haeden telling
husband I and approached the cheese department, we
her of my interest in woad and asking, if possible, to
noticed a lovely painted sign above one section of the
be put in touch with Henri Lambert.
cheese cases. This sign, with a painting of a Renais-
sance family, described today s Montagnolo cheese.
Ms. Haeden, realizing I was a devotee of woad
Today s Montagnolo cheese is a modern reincarnation
dyeing, very kindly faxed my letter to Denise Lam-
of a Renaissance delicacy that was made by past
bert, co-owner of Bleu de Lectoure. Denise sent a
cheese makers in the Bavarian mountains. This soft,
lovely catalog of their products along with their e-mail
blue veined cheese was intended for the nobility and
address: bleupastel@aol.com and website. This
was greatly appreciated. But with the demise of
began a lively correspondence with orders of woad
feudal Germany, this cheese disappeared until the
pigment and some of their other products.
present time.
You will learn many fascinating facts about woad and
The young lady in charge of the cheese department,
their methods of manufacturing from their website.
very generously, allowed me to take photos of the sign
So for now, I will give a short overview of their
and the large round of cheese. This enabled me to
company and procedures. Their company was started
discover the name of the company that produces this
in 1994. It is located in an old 18th century tannery.
soft and wonderfully creamy, blue cheese. The
Acres of woad plants are grown. It takes one ton of
company, Kaserei Champignon, is located in Ger-
woad leaves to produce 2 kgs.of pure woad pigment.
many. This presented an interesting problem: learning
A method of extraction, using modern technology
the correct address for this company. Since I am a
draws on traditional procedures. The Bleu de
subscriber of German Life Magazine, I contacted
Lectoure, along with University of Toulouse devel-
Tom Lipton, the European Representative. He very
oped this process. What I found so comforting to
kindly sent me the company address.
know, is that there is no use of chemicals; it is truly a
natural process. This process is described in detail on
I wrote to the company telling why I was so interested
their website: http://www.bleu-de-lectoure.com
in the Montagnolo cheese, and ask for any informa-
tion they could send to me. A few weeks later, I
In addition to the woad pigment, there are many other
received a phone call from one of their representa-
products manufactured at Bleu de Lectoure. There
tives, Birgit Bernhard, who is attached to their East
are decoration products, such as oil paint and mural
Coast offices. Birgit was on her way back to their
wax. The art products, just to name a couple, are:
Cheese, cont d on p. 14
woad ink and woad water color. There are many
7
Complex Weavers Medieval Textile Study Group
1982, 195-196). However, early pile textiles from
Trade Cloaks: Icelandic Supplementary
Frisia have spun pile wefts, which look more like rya
Weft Pile Textiles
and like hair! than like fleece (see Schlabow).
Adam of Bremen, writing about 1070, mentions
Carolyn Priest-Dorman, 2001
faldones, traded by the Saxons to Prussia
(Gujónsson 70). The Irish are especially renowned
Among the collections of northern and northwestern
in literature and history as well as in art (Sencer 6) for
Europe are represented no fewer than three types of
having worn shaggy cloaks throughout the Middle
supplementary weft pile textiles dating to the early
Ages and well into the Renaissance, often in defiance
Middle Ages. Each textile type seems to have been
of English edicts (Pritchard 163-164).
used for specific purposes. The rya type, a coarse
weave with a spun pile weft, was apparently used
Legal references are even more explicit. In the early
much as it has been throughout the last thousand
Middle Ages, Iceland and Norway accepted and
years, as a domestic furnishing. The shaggy type, a
regulated as legal tender certain types of domestically
medium-coarse weave with an unspun pile weft, was
produced cloth such as vaml and shaggy cloaks.
so favored for use as cloaks that the histories of at
During that time Iceland exported several grades of
least two countries, Iceland and Ireland, include it as a
shaggy cloaks to Europe, some of which are detailed
defining example of national clothing. Perhaps in
in the oldest part of Grgs, the earliest written
imitation of the shaggy cloak, a third type also
Icelandic legal code, some of whose portions date
existed. Its ground weave varied between coarse and
back to the eleventh century. Early in Icelandic
fine, and it was sometimes heavily fulled and even
history, when silver was plentiful but cloth was
sometimes napped. Its pile was produced by darning
scarce, six ells of vaml (the standard legal tender
unspun or loosely twisted locks of wool or other
grade of 2/2 twill wool cloth) were worth one eyrir, or
animal hair into the ground weave with a needle. The
about 24.5 grams of silver (Hoffmann, 195). As the
darned pile textile was used for hats and possibly also
years went on, this number ballooned to 48 ells before
for cloaks or other bad weather gear. This article will
stabilizing at about 45 ells around the year 1200
focus on the second category, the shaggy cloak textile
(Dennis et al., 21n, 269n). Standard trade cloaks,
type with woven-in locks of wool, with special
or vararfeldir, had to measure four thumb-ells long
attention to Icelandic materials.
and two broad, thirteen tufts across the piece (Dennis
et al., K ż 246, p. 207). That works out to about
Iconographic and written references to pile textiles
205x102 cm; when the cloak was worn, the rows of
exist from the early Middle Ages onward. The
locks would hang vertically. At two aurar apiece,
earliest medieval depiction of someone wearing a pile
they were originally worth twice as much per ell as
woven garment is a portrait of some Vandals, circa
vaml. However, during the same period in which
450, wearing shaggy cloak-coats (Gujónsson 39).
the valuation of vaml plummeted, the valuation of
Later in the Middle Ages, it was typical for images of
vararfeldir apparently remained constant, possibly
St. John the Baptist, travelers, and hermits to be
due to their being more labor-intensive to produce
depicted wearing pile cloaks (Gujónsson 52). Some
than vaml. Better quality pile cloaks, hafnarfeldir,
medieval sculptures of St. John in his pile cloak are
presumably with more dense pile, were also regarded
wonderfully detailed, to the point that the ground
as legal tender in the same statutes, but no price or
weave of the textile (coarse tabby) is clear.
standard was mentioned (Gujónsson 68-69).
References to pile cloaks (vararfeldir) abound in the
Archaeological remains from the period confirm the
Icelandic sagas, although they are frequently and
evidence of literary and artistic sources. Remnants of
inaccurately translated into English as fur cloaks,
this specific type of pile textile dating to the tenth and
which is really only the correct translation for the
eleventh centuries turn up in several locations includ-
skinnfeldr (Gujónsson 68). According to the
ing Heynes, Iceland; Dublin, Ireland; the Isles of Man
Heimskringla, Haraldr Greycloak, a tenth-century
and Eigg; York, England; Birka and Lund, Sweden;
king in Norway, was so named for his acquisition of a
and Wolin and Opole on the Oder River in Poland.
grey vararfeldr. Other early written references to pile
One famous piece called the Mantle of St. Brigid has
texiles of the period mention the villosa, believed by
also been preserved at the Cathedral of St. Salvator in
some to be shaggy cloaks or coverlets, that were
Bruges, Belgium. Believed to be Irish in origin, it
traded by the Frisians in the eighth century (Geijer
8
Issue 28 June 2001
was originally donated to the Cathedral of St. Donaas, The ground weave might be 2/2 twill, 2/1 twill, or
also in Bruges (Sencer 7), by Gunhild (the sister of tabby. The number of picks between tufts varies
Harold Godwinsson) sometime between 1054 and among the known pieces. The tufts across the warp
1087. A so far unique use of pile weave is also might be crowded together or sparse, regularly or
represented by the tenth-century Fragment 19B from irregularly spaced. The ground weave might be
Hedeby, Denmark. It was dyed with madder and visible or covered by pile; the pile wefts might show
sewn to a man s jacket garment perhaps the only on the back of the textile, or not.
medieval instance of pink fake fur trim (Hgg 1984,
77)! Tufts are held down by a number of warp threads that
often differs in the same piece. Methods for securing
A special note is needed here about the St. Brigid tufts into the warp differ a great deal; some involve
piece. Some modern authors, in an attempt to explain simply laying tufts into the weave, while others
how the piece came to look like it does, have drawn require securing by wrapping the tuft around the
parallels to various traditional Irish techniques for warp. Typically, the length of pile is several centime-
producing a napped surface. All these methods rely ters; the Heynes fragments are about 9cm deep, while
on raising the nap by teasing up fibers from the fluffy the Birka fragments are thumb-long (Geijer 131).
weft yarn somewhat the same method used to
produce broadcloths in the High Middle Ages. Because they are the two pieces of known pile weav-
Allegedly the St. Brigid piece was then rubbed with ing most likely to represent an historic Icelandic
pebbles and honey in order to curl up the resultant tradition, I based my pile weave samples on the pieces
nap. However, close structural analysis has indicated from Heynes (see Gujónsson). The ground weave of
that the surface texture could not have been achieved these pieces is a plain 2/2 twill with a Z-wale, woven
by combing or brushing to raise the nap (Sencer 10, using Z-spun warp and S-spun weft; the thread counts
note 28). Further, this piece appears to have been are 9x4/cm and 7x5/cm, with the warps finer and
woven in the same fashion as the other textiles noted more tightly spun than the wefts. Pile tufts are
above, that is, with a separate pile weft. If it were inserted after every four picks, with varying frequency
woven with a separate pile weft, it would fall squarely but anchoring to approximately every twentieth warp
within the tradition of red Irish pile weaves along with thread. Sometimes the tufts travel under three, and
the Dublin Viking Age piece and an early sixteenth sometimes under four, warp threads before emerging.
century one found at Drogheda, Co. Meath (see At these setts, Gujónsson estimates that a full two-ell
Heckett 158-159). warp would have required about 50 locks per pile
row, which would have yielded a high quality shaggy
Producing a Pile Woven Textile textile, perhaps like hafnarfeldir (p. 69). The pile
weft length is 15-19 cm, and the tufts are only held
down by one warp thread rather than the two that
In this technique tufts of lightly twisted wool, or locks
would be raised for a normal 2/2 shed.
of guard hair just as they came from the sheep, were
inserted into the shed of the weave between wefts.
Sample 1: warp and weft of Eingirni, a commercial
Many factors, some of them possibly geographical in
Z-spun white Icelandic single at 28 wraps per
nature, differentiate the various known techniques.
inch (1.0mm diameter). 20 epi, about 10epi.
The materials ranged in color from completely undyed
Pile weft of white tog.
or naturally pigmented wools to polychrome dyed
ones. Icelandic literature mentions several colors of
Sample 2: warp of Loband Einband, a commercial
pile cloak including striped (Gujónsson 69); one
Z-spun grey-brown Icelandic single at 30
possible method for doing this is to use differently
wraps per inch (0.9mm diameter); weft of
colored wefts or locks for a vertically striped effect,
brown Shetland singles softly S-spun at 24
or possibly both in combination. One cloak fragment
wraps per inch (1.1mm diameter). 20 epi,
from Birka displays at least three colors (Geijer 1938,
about 10epi. Pile wefts of moorit tog and of
22). The Manx pieces may have been woven from the
black tog.
moorit wool of the local Loghtan sheep (Grace
Crowfoot 81), and all three of the putatively Irish
As pile weft I used individual locks of Icelandic sheep
ones were dyed with one or more red dyestuffs.
tog (outer coat) as was done in the originals. The
9
Complex Weavers Medieval Textile Study Group
three sample pile wefts I used differed greatly in was light, flexible, and warm, whose pile would help
quality. The white was thick, long, medium fine, and keep the wearer dry. Accordingly, I did not use an
wavy. The moorit was medium length, fine, soft, elaborate finishing process. Using a bath of hot water
curly, but not very thick. The black (shown in and Orvus paste, I worked the wrong side of the
Figures 1-2) was sparse, short, coarse, straight, and ground weave of the textile between my fingertips for
wiry. a few minutes, endeavoring not to mat the tips of the
pile weft too much in the process. A vigorous shaking
After each fourth pick of 2/2 twill, I inserted the pile after the final rinse helped resolve some of the pile
in a shed created by raising only the first shaft. This weft that had gotten disarrayed in the fulling back into
gave the same interlacement as that of the originals its original locks. Some of the pile weft stayed
and was a convenient mnemonic for the weaving disarrayed (see Figure 3), creating what Geijer called
process. Also, as in the original, it keeps the pile weft a confused fur-like surface (Geijer 131), which only
from showing on the back side of the textile. For my made the samples look more like the Icelandic finds.
two 8x10" samples I chose a pile weft unit of 24 warp
threads (16 for the lock and 8 as spacers), which was While both samples were sett the same, I didn t expect
based on one of the sections of the drawing of the them to finish to the same thread counts due to the
Heynes weave. different materials. Interestingly, their finished thread
counts both worked out to be about 9x5/cm, although
For the first row of pile, the lock is inserted from right the qualities of the two textiles differ somewhat.
to left under the first four raised warp threads at the While this thread count is entirely within the param-
right edge of the weaving area. The tip end of the eters of the medieval examples, it would be helpful to
lock is the working end. After the tuft goes under the know what the actual thread sizes are on the Heynes
leftmost warp thread in the group of four, it is fragments. Most of the similar extant weaves whose
wrapped once around the leftmost warp. The wrap thread sizes have been reported use warps running
proceeds toward the fell rather than toward the around 1.0mm in thickness, with wefts somewhat
unwoven warp (see Figure 1). Without distorting the heavier.
wrapped warp thread, gently pull the two ends of the
lock until they are roughly even, then snug the lock up The three different pile wefts behaved somewhat
against the fell. Proceeding to the left across the differently upon fulling. The coarse, wiry locks felted
warp, skip the next two raised warp threads. (That swiftly and wound up looking the most like the
gives you a total of 24 warp threads for one repeat.) archaeological examples. The curly, fine locks felted
Insert the next lock under the following four warp at their bases while their tips stayed separate. The
threads, and so on across the row. long, medium-fine and wavy locks maintained their
lock structures the best, which is perhaps more like
When the entire row is done (see Figure 2), open the the medieval descriptions and depictions. Generally,
complete first twill shed (shafts one and two), beat, the better preserved the lock structure before the
and weave the next four picks of 2/2 normally. In fulling process, the more the locks stayed separate
subsequent pile rows, the placement of locks should during fulling. Consequently, the wefts composed of
be staggered in order to achieve better coverage. tog that had had to be combed (in order to clean it), or
None of the extant pieces are completely regular in of several thin locks used as one, fulled a great deal
their repeats, so let yourself be guided a little bit by more than single locks did. Also, the ground weaves
where you think the next lock should go. I used a differed somewhat in texture. The Eingirni sample
displacement of two raised warp threads per row, and did not soften up nearly as much as the Loband and
a three-row repeat. Accordingly, the second pile row homespun one. With only these few materials and a
was worked beginning with the third raised warp single method, I created a wide array of textile effects;
thread from the right edge. The third pile row was accordingly, sampling is clearly a good idea for
worked beginning with the fifth raised warp thread. anyone wishing to achieve a specific effect in this
For the fourth, fifth, and sixth pile rows, I repeated class of weave.
the sequence used in the first through third pile rows.
Sources:
The Heynes examples are not heavily fulled. The Crowfoot, Grace. Various sections on textiles, pp.
intention seems to have been to create a textile that 43-44 and 80-83, in Gerhard Bersu and
10
Issue 28 June 2001
Figure 1. Insertion of a pile weft.
Figure 3. Finished samples: white on white,
black and moorit on shades of natural brown
(from top to bottom). Overly felted black sample
reveals sections of ground weave.
Larger pictures at:
http://www.cs.vassar.edu/~capriest/image/pile1.jpg
http://www.cs.vassar.edu/~capriest/image/pile2.jpg
Figure 2. Several completed rows of pile on the
http://www.cs.vassar.edu/~capriest/image/pile3.jpg
loom
sources, cont d
David M. Wilson, Three Viking Graves in the
Iceland.
Isle of Man. Medieval Archaeology Mono- Geijer, Agnes. Die Textilfunde aus den Grbern.
graph Series 1. London: The Society for
Birka: Untersuchungen und Studien, III.
Medieval Archaeology, 1966. The longer
Uppsala: Almqvist & Wiksells, 1938.
section includes a write-up on a pile cloak.
Discusses three pile weaves in graves from
tenth-century Birka, Sweden.
Dennis, Andrew; Foot, Peter; and Perkins, Richard,
. A History of Textile Art: A Selective Account,
eds. and trans. Laws of Early Iceland: The
corrected ed., trans. Roger Tanner. Pasold
Codex Regius of Grgs, with Material from
Research Fund Ltd./Sotheby Parke Bernet
Other Manuscripts, vol. II. Winnipeg: The
Publications, 1982. Good basic sections on
University of Manitoba Press, 2000. Several
the weaving and history of pile textiles, with
sections touch on the production and valua-
extensive paraphrasing of Gujonsson s
tion of specific textiles in early medieval
work.
11
Complex Weavers Medieval Textile Study Group
Gujónsson, Elsa E. Forn rggvarvefnaur, rbók fragment from 11th century Sweden. The
hins Izlenska Fornleifaflags (Reykjavk: author (I believe mistakenly) calls it a rug.
safoldarprentsja H.F., 1962), pp. 12-71. Maik, Jerzy. Frhmittelalterliche Noppengewebe
Considers two pre-1200 Icelandic shaggy aus Opole in Schlesien, Archaeological
cloak fragments, follows with a typology of Textiles in Northern Europe: Report from
pile weaves, discusses parallel finds in the the 4th NESAT Symposium 1.-5. May 1990 in
same period, and includes plates of several Copenhagen, ed. Lise Bender Jłrgensen and
medieval depictions of shaggy cloaks in Elisabeth Munksgaard, pp. 105-116. Tidens
statuary and illumination. Includes informa- Tand 5. Copenhagen: Det Kongelige Danske
tion on appearance and historic dimensions of Kunstakademi, 1992. Details of several pile
Icelandic pile cloaks, taken from Grgs. weaves from 10th- to 12th-century Opole,
Very good English summary. Still the Poland, a city on the trade route between the
seminal work on the subject. Baltic and the Black Sea.
Hgg, Inga. Die Textilfunde aus dem Hafen von . Frhmittelalterliche Textilwaren in Wolin,
Haithabu. Berichte ber die Ausgrabungen in Archaeological Textiles: Report from the
Haithabu, Bericht 20. Neumnster: Karl 2nd NESAT Symposium 1.-4.V.1984., ed. Lise
Wachholtz Verlag, 1984. Careful catalogue Bender Jłrgensen, Bente Magnus, and
includes analysis of Hedeby fragment 19B Elisabeth Munksgaard, pp. 162-186.
from 10th century Denmark. Arkaeologiske Skrifter 2. Kłbnhavn:
Heckett, Elizabeth Wincott. An Irish Shaggy Pile Arkaeologisk Institut, 1988. Viking Age and
Fabric of the 16th Century an Insular later textiles from Wolin, a Polish port at the
Survival? Archaeological Textiles in mouth of the Oder River on the Baltic Sea.
Northern Europe: Report from the 4th Two are shaggy pile.
NESAT Symposium 1.-5. May 1990 in Pritchard, Frances. Aspects of the Wool Textiles
Copenhagen, ed. Lise Bender Jłrgensen and from Viking Age Dublin, Archaeological
Elisabeth Munksgaard, pp. 158-168. Tidens Textiles in Northern Europe: Report from the
Tand 5. Copenhagen: Det Kongelige Danske 4th NESAT Symposium 1.-5. May 1990 in
Kunstakademi, 1992. Incidental to the Copenhagen, ed. Lise Bender Jłrgensen and
subject of the article, there s a good summary Elisabeth Munksgaard, pp. 93-104. Tidens
of the early history of pile weaves in Irish Tand 5. Copenhagen: Det Kongelige Danske
fashion, with a good bibliography. Also a Kunstakademi, 1992. Some text and a photo
black/white photo of the Mantle of St. Brigid. of a pile-woven fragment.
Henshall, Audrey S. Early Textiles Found in Roesdahl, Else, and Wilson, David M., eds. From
Scotland, Part I: Locally Made, Proceed- Viking to Crusader: The Scandinavians and
ings of the Society of Antiquaries of Scot- Europe 800-1200. New York: Rizzoli Inter-
land, Vol. LXXXVI (1951), pp. 1-29. national Publications, Inc., 1992. Brief
Hoffmann, Marta. The Warp-Weighted Loom: Studies catalogue entry with small photo of Hedeby
in the History and Technology of an Ancient fragment 19B.
Implement. Oslo: The Norwegian Research Schlabow, K. Vor- und frhgeschichtliche
Council for Science and the Humanities, 1974 Textilfunde aus den Nrdlichen Niederlanden,
[Robin and Russ Handweavers reprint; Palaeohistoria, vol. 16 (1974), pp. 169-221.
original printing 1966, Studia Norvegica 16]. Technical catalogue of early and medieval
A discussion of vaml, including Icelandic textiles from the Netherlands, each with a
legal sources. photo.
Lindstrm, Mrta. Medieval Textile Finds in Lund, Sencer, Yvette J. Threads of History, Fashion
Textilsymposium Neumnster: Institute of Technology Review, Volume 2, no.
Archologische Textilfunde 6.5-8.5.1981 1 (October 1985) pp. 5-10. Re-examination of
[NESAT 1], ed. Lise Bender Jłrgensen and the original technical report on the Mantle of
Karl Tidow, pp. 179-191. Neumnster: St. Brigid; lots of good background and
Textilsymposium Neumnster, 1982. De- contextual information about the medieval
scription and diagram of a shaggy pile Irish brat, or cloak.
12
Issue 28 June 2001
Shaggy Cloak Textile Type: A Catalogue penannular brooch [hufeisenfibel, =horseshoe
fibula] a few remnants of a coarse, matted
Birka 736 tabby, pile loosely spun or locks [10C weave, W8, partly coarse hair of some kind
male]. W 9. Grave 736. Napped fabric? A of pelt. [Grabregister 171]
very small fragment, about 3x1.5 cm. On one
side indistinct tabby weave, on the other one Bruges (St. Brigid) third quarter 11th century,
as it were locks of loose wool yarn or possi- donated to cathedral by Harald Godwinsson s
bly only unspun wool.} (Geijer 22) On the sister Gunnhild; red-violet tabby, fine tight
penannular brooch [hufeisenfibel, =horseshoe warp, thick loose weft; loosely twisted pile
fibula] the remains of a pile weave, W 9. woven in.
(Grabregister)
Cronk Moar A1 tabby; 4/Z/tight x 3/S/loose
Birka 750 tabby, loosely spun or locks in two (Twice warp size); twisted or lightly spun pile
different (dyed?) colors [mid-10C man and woven in; fleece possibly Loughtan?; pile
woman]. D 11. Grave 750. Taf. 37:4. woven atop weft so invisible on back of
Napped fabric. The fragments are quite textile; every second row; pile crosses 5
largely, however extremely fragile and closely threads, under-over-under the raised warp
felted. The basic fabric is very difficult to threads; spacing unclear; circa 900
detect, seems to be however tabby weave. The
fleece consists of a few approximately Cronk Moar A4 tabby; 3/Z/tight x 3/Z/loose
thumb-long, spun wool threads or locks in (twice warp size); twisted or lightly S-spun
clearly red and blue colour tones, which form pile woven in; fleece possibly Loughtan?; pile
a confused fur-like surface. Wool was ana- woven atop weft so invisible on back of
lyzed (Appendix 1), but without a result for textile; every second row; pile crosses 5
the breed of sheep. (Geijer 131) Over the threads, under-over-under the raised warp
corpses lay probably a blanket or the like. threads; spacing unclear; circa 900
Coherent piece in a pile weave, D 11, shows
distinct traces of a woman s brooch. The Dublin 2/2; warp 5/Z, dyed with non-madder red
thorshammer has left behind a print on a dye; weft 3-4/S, pigmented dark brown; pile
fuzzy clump of hair, probably from a fur S woven as Heynes save that it is spun
blanket.... [Grabregister 166] (loosely???)
Birka 955 twill (not sure if 2/2 or 2/1), looks like Hedeby 19B madder-dyed (?) pile trimming; 2/2
unspun or locks in at least three colors [male, twill, 6/Z/1.0-1.2 x 3-3.5/S/2.0-2.7, weft
no date given]. W8. Grave 955. Taf. 7:1. more loosely spun; pile woven in, height
Napped or pile fabric? Several indistinct about 2-3cm; definitely unfulled; Hafen 76ff
fragments, which were situated with a
circular clip, from rough wool yarn, in which Heynes A dating 900-1100; 2/2 twill; 9/Z/fine but
clearly different colours are to be noticed: uneven x 4/S/uneven, slight spin; locks of
light brown, reddish and bluish. On the one Icelandic wool, 15-19cm long, woven in;
side, where the clasp lay, is a coarse, nubbly pigmented wool; pile about every 4 wefts,
(? =schtteres) yet confused fabric in three- every 20 warps; no regular pattern of place-
or four-shaft texture. The yarn is left-spun. ment repeat; pile placed usually R to L under
On the other page a quantity of thread ends 6 ends, then back R over two ends under first
pressed in different directions. How they were pass to form loop near L end of weft; not
fastened in the weave cannot possibly be pulled tight; no sign on back of textile; ends
decided because of the small size of the evenly protrude
remnant. It reminds of the fabric described as
D 11. In individual places is to be seen, how Heynes B dating 900-1100; 2/2 twill; 7/Z/slightly
the weft threads of the regular binding turns spun coarse x 4/S/slightly spun coarse;
and remains hanging. (Geijer 22) Over the otherwise as above save back R loop goes
over first pass; carelessly woven
13
Complex Weavers Medieval Textile Study Group
Cheese, cont d from page 7
*Kildonan, Isle of Eigg second half 9th century;
tabby; loosely z-spun pile inserted on each
home office in Bavaria. When she returns, she will
3rd and 4th weft (like Cronk Moar, they
send me more information about all their cheeses. But
wouldn t show on back), offset 1 warp to the
in the interim, she gave me their website:
right in the uppermost of two pile tufts, no
www.champignon.com. This website is all in German;
offsetting between pairs though [Elsa Guth
but with some loose translations, I discovered some of
41f]; see also Henshall, p. 15.
the cheeses Kaserei Champignon manufactures. The
cheeses are: cambozola, champignon-camembert,
*Lund 2/1 weft-faced twill; 9/S x 3/S; weft thicker
mirabo, rougette, and my favorite, Montagnolo. The
than warp; pile locks woven in after every 4th
company was founded by, Julius Hirschle and
weft; pile loops around 1 thread; eleventh
Leopold Immler. In 1908, they created a special
century; see diagram
Camembert: the mushroom Camembert, which has
become very popular. For ninety years, Champignon
Opole 2/2, 4 x 3 (Maik, NESAT 2) [there are 6, 5
Cheese Dairy, with their traditional craftsmanship
of which are 11th century]
combined with the highest standard of product quality
is one of the most successful soft cheese manufactures
in the world.
Samples:
Montagnolo cheese has a unique and wonderful taste.
These are the samples that people have chosen for the
I can readily understand why it was so greatly appre-
sample exchange for the December issue:
ciated by the nobility of Bavaria
Gayle Bingham: q from Bender-Jorgensen (warp
float pattern)
Diana Frost: Textiles & Clothing sample #49
Lynn Meyer: Broken Lozenge twill from Coppergate
Holly Schaltz: York 1268, Diamond Twill using
Icelandic Fleece
Next Issue:
Dyes: Woad, Weld & Madder
Please consider sending in an article! There are
several members who have not contributed
lately.
Please Note:
One of our members, Noeline Barkla
of New Zealand, died of breast can-
cer on February 8, 2001. The news
arrived here too late to add it to the
last newsletter.
14
Wyszukiwarka
Podobne podstrony:
Medieval heresy an anthropological viewJones, The Image of the Barbarian in Medieval EuropeEbook Moda Medieval Clothingchecklist textil clothing leathermedieval hide shoesHill, Rigsthula some medieval christian analoguesMedieval BucklesA Magical Medieval Society Western European WarfareSome Medieval Theories about the Nile DiscussionSome Medieval Theories about the Nile Discussionmedieval coinsmedieval coins2010 lecture 10 transl groups medieval theatreMedieval Grimoires The Red Book Of Appin id887881170 size306BIBLIOGRAPHY #7 Meister Eckhart & Medieval MysticismHigh Medieval Character SheetTextile tourLecture10 Medieval women and private sphereBIBLIOGRAPHY I General Works on the Medieval Churchwięcej podobnych podstron