Clause relationships
coordination and subordination,
signals of coordination and
subordination.
Co-ordination of clauses
The measure of grammatical completeness is
the clause. The sentence consists of one or
more grammatically complete clauses.
Each clause contains the constituents that
must be present according to the general
rules for constructing clauses - subject, verb,
and complements of the verb.
Clauses can be combined in sentences.
Clauses may be related through co-
ordination or subordination.
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Coordinated clauses
Coordinated clauses are linked at the same
grammatical level. Two or more clauses may
be co-ordinated to form a sentence. Such a
sentence is traditionally termed a compound
sentence, and the co-ordinated clauses are
the main clauses of the sentence.
Example of a compound sentence consisting
of two main clauses co-ordinated by and:
The cause of ice ages is still a controversial
subject, and debates continue about the
precise climatic effects of individual cycles.
Co-ordination of two main clauses
Fig. 1 Co-ordination of two main clauses: The triangles represent the
clauses, and M in the triangles stands for 'main clause'.
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Co-ordination of three main clauses
Crime was awful, test scores were low, and there was no enrollment in honors programs.
The three co-ordinated clauses are on the same level of co-
ordination, but often two of the co-ordinated clauses are more closely
linked and as a pair they are co-ordinated with the remaining clause.
Coordinating sentence parts
When connecting sentence parts we decide which
parts of each sentence to emphasize and why. The
proper emphasis helps us communicate ideas in
writing with strength and style.
Sometimes we want to show that two or more ideas
are equally important in a sentence. In such cases,
we coordinate. Sentence coordination links ideas
of equal importance.
To coordinate is to bring together related
independent clauses.
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Coordinating sentence parts (2)
Coordination usually involves using the right
word or mark of punctuation (so called
coordinating conjunction or simply
coordinator, i.e. the words and, but, or) to
show different relationships between ideas.
When the co-ordinator is present the
relationship is syndetic. It is asyndetic when
the co-ordinators are not present but could
be inserted.
Ways of coordinating sentence parts
There are four different ways to coordinate
sentence parts:
1. Use a coordinating conjunction.
2. Use a pair of correlative conjunctions.
3. Use a semicolon.
4. Use a semicolon and a conjunctive adverb.
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Ways of coordinating sentence parts
a) coordinating conjunctions
The coordinating conjunction conveys the
precise relationship between ideas. Each of the
coordinating conjunctions has a different meaning,
as the following chart shows:
Coordinating Meaning Function
conjunction
and in addition to to link ideas
but however to contrast ideas
for as a result to show cause
nor negative to reinforce negative
or choice to show possibilities
so therefore to show result
yet however to show contrast or difference
Ways of coordinating sentence parts
b) a pair of correlative conjunctions
To show a balance between two independent
clauses we can link sentences with a pair of
correlative conjunctions
either . . . or
neither . . . nor
not only . . . but also
both . . . and
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Ways of coordinating sentence parts
c) a semicolon
Link independent clauses with a semicolon to
show that the ideas are of equal importance.
A cause is what happens; the effect is the
result.
The mechanic adjusted the carburetor; Tina s
car now runs smoothly.
Ways of coordinating sentence parts
d) a semicolon and a conjunctive adverb
There are many different conjunctive adverbs. Some
are single words; others are phrases:
therefore, consequently, furthermore, nevertheless, as a
result , for example, however, nonetheless, in addition
A semicolon and a conjunctive adverb together
indicate different relationships, depending on the
conjunctive adverb. The relationships are chiefly
examples, continuation, and contrast.
I adore chili; unfortunately, it doesn t adore me!
The invention of air-conditioners has greatly influenced
major migration trends; for example, Sunbelt cities such as
Phoenix, Atlanta, Dallas, and Houston would never have
grown as successfully without air-conditioning.
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Uncoordinated vs. coordinated - examples
Uncoordinated:
The dog s fur was tangled. We took her in for grooming.
Coordinated:
The dog s fur was tangled, so we took her in for grooming.
The dog s fur was tangled; therefore, we took her in for
grooming.
The dog s fur was tangled; as a result, we took her in for
grooming.
Uncoordinated:
Jack lost his briefcase. Jack lost his cell phone.
Coordinated:
Jack lost both his briefcase and his cell phone.
Jack lost not only his briefcase but also his cell phone.
Subordinating sentence parts
Subordination is connecting two unequal but related
clauses with a subordinating conjunction to form a
complex sentence. Subordination shows the
relationship between ideas of unequal rank.
When you subordinate one part of a sentence to
another, you make the dependent clause develop the
main clause.
A dependent (subordinate) clause is part of a
sentence, so it cannot stand alone. Dependent
clauses add additional information to the main
clauses, but they are not necessary to complete the
thought.
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Subordinating conjunctions
A dependent clause often starts with a subordinating
conjunctions, i.e. word that makes the clause unable
to stand alone, e.g. after, although, because, before,
if, though, since, when, till, unless, wherever, where.
Subordinating conjunction Relationship
as, because cause, reason
whether, rather than, than choice
even if, if, unless, provided that condition
though, even though, although contrast
so, so that, in order that, that effect, result
wherever, where location
since, until, when, while, after, before, once, whenever time
Subordinated vs. not subordinated
clauses - examples
Not subordinated:
It snowed all night. School was closed the following day.
Subordinated:
Because it snowed all night, school was closed the following
day.
Since it snowed all night, school was closed the following
day.
Not subordinated:
A tornado can pick up a house and drop it hundreds of feet
away. These are extremely dangerous storms.
Subordinated:
Since a tornado can pick up a house and drop it hundreds of
feet away, these are extremely dangerous storms.
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The main clause vs. the dependent clause
We can not switch the main clause and the
dependent clause when we subordinate.
If we put the main idea in a dependent clause, our
sentences will not be logical:
Because people stared at her, Rikki wore a see-
through blouse.
is illogical (cause and effect are reversed, so the
sentence doesn t make sense).
It becomes logical when we rearrange the order:
Because Rikki wore a see-through blouse, people
stared at her.
Signals of subordination
There are two types of signals that a
clause is subordinate:
the identity of the initial item in the
clause
the nature of the verb phrase or its
absence.
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Signals of subordination
a) the identity of the initial item in the clause
A clause is subordinate if it is introduced by a subordinator (or
subordinating conjunction) such as if, because, and although. Certain
subordinate clauses are introduced by wh-words. Some of these wh-
words are used only with subordinate clauses; for example: whoever,
whatever, however. Others may also be used with interrogative main
clauses; for example: who, which, when, where, why, how.
The subordinators as, that, and though are exceptional in that they
occasionally do not come at the beginning of their clauses
That may be either a subordinator like whether [a] or a relative pronoun
like which [b]:
[a] We decided that we would work together
[b] [. . .] I very much enjoyed the work that I was involved in
As a subordinator, that can usually be omitted ('zero that') when its
clause is not functioning as subject:
[a1] We decided we would work together.
In [a1] there is no overt signal of subordination for the complement we
would work together, but we could point to the option of inserting the
subordinator that.
Signals of subordination
b) the nature of the verb phrase
If the verb in a clause is non-finite (i.e. not
marked for tense and/or number and/or
person as in [c]) or if there is no verb (as in
[d]), the clause is generally subordinate
[c] She paused, sighed winsomely, looking
aged.
[d] He began running, feeling light and
purposeful, scarcely seeming to touch the
pavement with his feet, his heart strong and
amazingly compliant with his sudden
awakening.
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Three major forms of subordinate clauses
1. finite clause, whose verb is a finite verb (i.e.
marked for tense and/or number and/or person):
[1] When we were walking over the bridge Mary Jane
stopped to take a shot of a woman on the other side of
the road who was dragging a child along by the hand.
2. non-finite clause, whose verb is a non-finite verb
(i.e. not marked for tense and/or number and/or
person  the verb may have the  ing participle form, -
ed participle form, the  to infinitive form, or the bare
infinitive form):
[2] To test the belt tension, press the belt down at a
point midway on the longest run between pulleys,
using firm thumb pressure.
3. verbless clause, which does not have a verb:
[3] In accordance with the principles of direct play the
ball should be thrown forward where possible.
Functions of subordinate clauses -
four major types
1. nominal clauses, which can have a range of
functions similar to those of nouns and noun
phrases (i.e. subject, object or complement)
2. relative clauses, which postmodify noun phrases
3. adverbial clauses, which can have a range of
functions similar to adverb phrases or prepositional
phrases when these function as adverbials
4. comparative clauses, which together with the
comparative items more, less, or as or the
comparative inflection -er function as intensifiers
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Functions of subordinate clauses -
nominal (noun) clauses
All nominal clauses may have the following two functions in a
host clause:
1. Subject:
Mastering this technique can be a lot of fun.
2. Complement of a verb, chiefly as direct object:
I've never wanted to be a writer at all.
Most nominal clauses may also function as:
3. Complement of an adjective:
I'm not quite sure if that's right actually
4. Complement of a preposition
You seem to have a capacity for handling stress.
5. Complement of a noun
Police say they can't confirm a TV report that the building had
been hit by automatic fire
Functions of subordinate clauses -
relative clauses
Relative clauses postmodify noun phrases. They
can be restrictive (those that identify which person or
thing, of several, is being referred to [1]) or
nonrestrictive (those which simply add further
information about the noun they postmodify [2]):
[1] The test paper which everyone took was too
difficult. Several tests were taken, one was failed by
everyone and this one was too difficult.
[2] We can send two representatives and additional
observers (who can participate but not vote).
Relative clauses begin with one of the relative
pronouns: who, whom, whose, which, that.
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Functions of subordinate clauses -
adverbial clauses (1)
Adverbial clauses are dependent clauses
that describe a verb, adjective, or other
adverb.
An adverb clause answers these questions:
Where? Why? When? To what extent? Under
what condition? In what manner?
You can place an adverb clause in the
beginning, middle, or end of a sentence.
Functions of subordinate clauses -
adverbial clauses (2)
We can distinguish adverbial clauses of:
Time  introduced by such subordinators as: after, when, once,
while, as, until
Wait until you are called.
Place - introduced by where or wherever
I don t know where we did it.
Condition - introduced by if and unless, provided, on condition,
providing (that)
If she agrees, we ll get married.
Concession - introduced by whereas, while
Mr Mikołajczak teaches Grammar, while Mr Jędryka teaches
Phonetics.
Exception - introduced by except, except that, save, only
I would tell you why now, except that really I don t know.
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Functions of subordinate clauses -
adverbial clauses (3)
Reason - introduced by because, since, as, for
I lent him the money because he needed it.
Purpose  introduced by in order to, so as to
Students should take notes so as to male revision later.
Result  introduced by so that and so
I took no notice of him, so he flew into a rage.
Similarity and comparison - introduced by as, like in which the
verb refers to the manner in which something is / was done
Please do as I said.
It was like I imagined.
Preference - introduced by rather than, sooner than with the
bare infinitive
Rather than study English syntax, I d take a walk with a
beautiful girl.
Functions of subordinate clauses -
comparative clauses
Comparative clauses (as& as, & -er than & )
 they are clauses in which a proposition
expressed in the main clause is compared
with a proposition in the subordinate clause.
Comparative clauses are introduced by the
subordinators than or as.
The comparison is with respect to some
STANDARD OF COMPARISON: eg. health
Jane is as healthy as her sister (is).
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Clause relationships - summary
Clauses can be combined in sentences.
Clauses may be related through co-
ordination or subordination.
Coordinated clauses are linked at the same
grammatical level.
Subordination is connecting two unequal but
related clauses with a subordinating
conjunction to form a complex sentence.
Subordination shows the relationship
between ideas of unequal rank.
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