Grice s Cooperative Principle, Maxims of Conversation
& Conversational Implicature
Objective: Given a short dialogue which makes use of the maxims, identify the maxim in play,
and explain your answer. If applicable, explain the implication created.
The Cooperative Principle
A basic underlying assumption we make when we speak to one another is that we are trying to
cooperate with one another to construct meaningful conversations. This assumption is known as
the Cooperative Principle. As stated in H. P. Grice s Logic and Conversation (1975):
Make your conversational contribution such as is required, at the stage at which it occurs,
by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged. i
In other words, we as speakers try to contribute meaningful, productive utterances to further the
conversation. It then follows that, as listeners, we assume that our conversational partners are
doing the same.
You can think of reasons why someone might be uncooperative in conversation (maybe
they re being interrogated for information they don t want to give up; maybe they hate the
person they re talking to; maybe they re just crazy) but in the vast majority of conversations, it s
safe to assume that both participants are trying to be cooperative.
This assumption (that the cooperative principle holds, and the people we re speaking to
are trying to cooperate) explains two things:
(i) why speech errors are often ignored (or even go unnoticed) in conversation. As long as
the meaning the speaker is trying to get across is clear, the listener usually gives them the benefit
of the doubt and focuses on the meaning.
(ii) why we can find meaning in statements which, on the surface, seem ridiculous, untrue
or unrelated (i.e. metaphors, sarcasm, overstatement, understatement, etc.) Rather than assuming
that our conversational partner is lying, crazy, or speaking at random, we assume they re trying
to get across some meaning, and we can figure out what that meaning is.
The Maxims of Conversation
Grice came up with the following maxims of conversation. (A maxim is kind of like a rule of
thumb. But these rules aren t nearly as hard and fast as the Cooperative Principle, as we ll see.)
Quantity
" Make your contribution as informative as required. (Don t say too much or
too little.)
" Make the strongest statement you can.
Quality
" Do not say what you believe to be false.
" Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.
Relation
" Be relevant. (Stay on topic.)
Manner
" Avoid obscurity of expression.
" Avoid ambiguity.
" Be brief (avoid unnecessary prolixity).
" Be orderly.ii
The simplest way to think of Grice s maxims is general rules we follow in conversation.
However, that s not entirely accurate. The interesting thing about these rules is that often, we
don t follow them.
Maxim Violations
There are several ways/reasons a speaker might break one of the rules:
1. Violating the Cooperative Principle. (See Grice s Cooperative Principle. ) One
instance in which a speaker might break the maxim of quality is if they are really trying
to deceive the listener; but this would also be a violation of the cooperative principle. For
the really interesting violations, let s assume the Cooperative Principle holds.
2. Signaling a violation (minor violation). A person might essentially come out and tell
you they are violating a maxim and why.
Examples.
I don t know if this is relevant, but... (relation)
I m not sure how to say this, but... (manner)
I can t tell you; I m sworn to secrecy. (quantity)
This is just the word on the street; I can t vouch for this information. (quality)
3. Maxim clash. A speaker might violate one maxim in order to preserve another.
Example.
Carson is driving John to Meredith s house.
CARSON: Where does Meredith live?
JOHN: Nevada.
Maxim Violated: Quantity.
Why: There is clash between quantity and quality. Carson is looking for a street address, but
John gives a weaker, less informative statement (hence the quantity violation). If John really
doesn t know anything more specific, however, he cannot give a more informative statement
without violating quality.
4. Flouting a maxim (major violation) to create a conversational implicature. By
clearly and obviously violating a maxim, you can imply something beyond what you say.
Examples.
JOHN: Where s Meredith?
ELIZABETH: The control room or the science lab.
Maxim Violated: Quantity; Elizabeth didn t give as much information as John wanted
(Meredith s exact location), but instead gave a weaker statement (giving two possible options).
Implication: Elizabeth doesn t know which of the two places Meredith is.
SIMON: When are you coming home?
ELIZABETH: I will codify that question to my superiors and respond at such a time as an
adequate answer is preparable.
Maxim Violated: Manner; Elizabeth is using unnecessarily complicated and confusing words
and construction.
Implication: Elizabeth does not know or does not wish to give an answer to the question.
MEREDITH: You really love me?
JOHN: I like Ferris wheels, and college football, and things that go real fast.
Maxim Violated: Relation; John is changing the topic.
Implication: Either John doesn t want to respond to Meredith (perhaps he has problems
discussing his feelings) or the answer is no.
ELIZABETH: A lot of people are depending on you.
MEREDITH: Thanks, that really takes the pressure off.
Maxim Violated: Quality; knowing that a lot of people are depending on you does not, in fact,
take the pressure off. Meredith is saying something obviously untrue.
Implication: By saying something clearly untrue, Meredith is implying that the opposite is true
(sarcasm). The true meaning being expressed here is probably more like That really puts a lot of
pressure on me and perhaps, by extension, Stop pressuring me.
More on Conversational Implicature
As you can see from the above examples, flouting maxims to create implications can be a
powerful and creative way to get across a point.
Why imply instead of just saying what we mean? Well, implication can get across a great
deal of meaning with relatively little actual speech. Thinking of what you want to get across, and
interpreting what other people have said, seems to take much quicker than the relatively slow
process of actually verbalizing all the necessary sounds. So saying a little, while implying a lot,
is a way to avoid this phonological bottleneck and communicate more efficiently.iii
Of course, we re not always saving time. Sometimes, maxim violations are creative.
After all, without this capacity to draw inferences and understand implications to assume that
speakers are being cooperative even when they are saying things which are on the surface
untrue, irrelevant, ambiguous or unclear we couldn t have neat stuff like sarcasm, metaphor,
hyperbole, irony, etc.
Natural Language vs. Logical Language
Here s another way to understand the maxims. In Grice s original paper presenting the maxims,
he explained them as systematic ways that natural language differs from logical language. If
you ve had any exposure to symbolic logic, you know that there s a difference between, for
example, the logical statement
Meredith is in the control room (" (OR) Meredith is in the science lab
and the natural language statement
Meredith is in the control room or the science lab.
All we know about the logical statements is that at least one of the propositions is true. But we
know more than that about the natural language statement: we know (or, we have a good reason
to assume) that the speaker doesn t know which of the two places Meredith is, or they would say
so. According to the maxim of quantity, a person shouldn t give a weaker statement when a
stronger one is available. But logical language has no such rules about cooperation. If we used
strictly logical language, the weaker statement would be equally acceptable, as long as it was
true. (This natural/logical language distinction also explains why we get so mad when people do
smartass things like say Yes to the question Can you pass the salt? We then fix them with a
withering glare and say You know what I mean. )
Some people have argued that natural language is inferior to logical language because it
is less precise and more ambiguous, but using the maxims and the idea of implicature, Grice
argued that natural language, while different, is just as good. Indeed, more often than not,
listeners do know what the speaker means, even if it s not explicitly stated.
Criticisms of the Maxims
" It s not clear whether the maxims work in other languages and cultures.
" Some key concepts are undefined. A lot of intuition must be used to figure out, for
example, when a speaker is being irrelevant.
" They re not a complete listing of the rules we follow in conversation; for example, there
are also rules about, say, politeness, which are not addressed.
" There is some overlap, so it s not always clear-cut which maxim is being violated. For
example, take a dialogue like this:
JOHN: Are you done yet?
MEREDITH: Well, let s see, I ve had to deal with seven near-catastrophic systems
failures in the last four hours, Elizabeth dragged me to four different useless
meetings, and someone replaced my regular coffee with decaf, so I m only just
getting caffeine in my system and I still have to track down whoever did it and slowly
eviscerate them, which is a little higher on my to-do list at the moment than fixing
your stupid computer, so no, no, I m not done yet, actually.
JOHN: Jeez, a simple no would have sufficed.
It looks like this is a quantity violation (too much information), but it could also be
argued that it is a violation of relation (since the extra information Meredith volunteers is
largely irrelevant to the question John asked). It could further be argued that this lengthy
tirade violates manner, since it s unnecessarily prolix (wordy). It s also probable that
Meredith is exaggerating about the level of seriousness of the systems failures and about
killing that guy, so a quality violation is also likely.
Exercises
Each problem presents a short dialogue. You must identify which a maxim is being used or
violated. You may be asked to figure out the implication, or it may be given to you.
1. LAURA: Come on, I m taking you to the gym.
MEREDITH: Yeah, and pigs can fly.
What is Meredith implying?
What maxim creates that implication, and why?
2. CARSON: What happened?
MEREDITH: He got attacked by a giant bug, and he passed out.
Implication: He passed out because he was first attacked (in other words, the order in which the
events occurred is: (1) he got attacked; (2) he passed out.)
What maxim creates that implication, and why?
3. JOHN: We just have to fly real close to the corona of the sun!
MEREDITH: You re lucky you re pretty.
What is Meredith implying?
What maxim creates that implication, and why?
4. LAURA: Do you have any pets?
CARSON: I have two wee baby turtles.
Implication: Carson doesn t have any other pets besides the two turtles.
What maxim creates that implication, and why?
5. MEREDITH: Tell them what happened!
JOHN: Meredith saw an object or entity strongly resembling a giant bug.
What is John implying?
What maxim creates that implication, and why?
Answers to Exercises
1. LAURA: Come on, I m taking you to the gym.
MEREDITH: Yeah, and pigs can fly.
What is Meredith implying?
Meredith refuses to go to the gym with Laura.
What maxim creates that implication, and why?
Quality. Meredith is saying something which is clearly untrue. By combining the yes response
with a clearly untrue statement, Meredith is implying that the actual response is no.
2. CARSON: What happened?
MEREDITH: He got attacked by a giant bug, and he passed out.
Implication: He passed out because he was first attacked (in other words, the order in which the
events occurred is: (1) he got attacked; (2) he passed out.)
What maxim creates that implication, and why?
Manner. According to the maxim of manner, you are supposed to say things in an orderly way,
so you should say events in the actual order in which they occurred. When a person says This
happened and that happened, you assume they mean this happened, and then that happened.
3. JOHN: We just have to fly real close to the corona of the sun!
MEREDITH: You re lucky you re pretty.
What is Meredith implying?
John s idea is stupid.
What maxim creates that implication, and why?
Relation. Meredith is going off topic, talking about John s looks rather than his idea.
4. LAURA: Do you have any pets?
CARSON: I have two wee baby turtles.
Implication: Carson doesn t have any other pets besides the two turtles.
What maxim creates that implication, and why?
Quantity. According to maxim of quantity, you are supposed to say the strongest statement you
possible can. So we have to assume that s what Carson is doing. If he actually had, say, two
turtles and a dog, he should have made the stronger statement I have two turtles and a dog
instead of the weaker (but still true) statement I have two turtles.
5. MEREDITH: Tell them what happened!
JOHN: Meredith saw an object or entity strongly resembling a giant bug.
What is John implying?
Whatever Meredith saw, it wasn t a giant bug.
What maxim creates that implication, and why?
Manner. John is using unusually vague and ambiguous language. By describing what Meredith
saw in an unusual way, he s signaling that there s something unusual about it it isn t what it
seemed to be.
Alternate explanation. John is signaling a minor violation of quality. He can t just say Meredith
saw a giant bug since he isn t sure if it s true, so he avoids violating quality by using words
especially chosen to signal his uncertainty.
i
Grice, H. P. (1975). Logic and Conversation. In Martinich, A.P. (ed). Philosophy of Language.
(pp. 165-175) New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
ii
Adapted from above.
iii
Levinson, S. (2000) Presumptive Meanings: The theory of generalized conversational
implicature. MIT.
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