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Hawthorne and the Real
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Hawthorne and the Real
Bicentennial Essays
Edited by Millicent Bell
The Ohio State University Press
Columbus
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Copyright � 2005 by The Ohio State University
All rights reserved.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Hawthorne and the real : bicentennial essays / edited by Millicent Bell.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0 8142 0986 6 (cloth : alk. paper)  ISBN 0-8142-9060-4 (cd
rom)
1. Hawthorne, Nathaniel, 1804 1864 Criticism and interpretation. 2.
Literature and society United States History 19th century. I. Bell,
Millicent.
PS1888.H39 2005
813'.3-dc22
2004027320
Cover design by Jay Bastian
Type set in Minion
Printed by Thomson-Shore, Inc.
The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements
of the American National Standard for Information Sciences Perma-
nence of Paper for Printed Library Materials. ANSI Z39.48 1992.
9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
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Contents
Preface vii
1. Hawthorne and the Real
MILLICENT BELL 1
2. Hawthorne and Politics (Again): Words and Deeds in the 1850s
MICHAEL T. GILMORE 22
3.  Strangely Ajar with the Human Race : Hawthorne, Slavery,
and the Question of Moral Responsibility
LARRY J. REYNOLDS 40
4. Hawthorne and the Problem of  American Fiction:
The Example of The Scarlet Letter
LAWRENCE BUELL 70
5. Nathaniel Hawthorne and Transnationality
JOHN CARLOS ROWE 88
6. Revisiting Hawthorne s Feminism
NINA BAYM 107
7. Hawthorne s Early Tales: Male Authorship, Domestic
Violence, and Female Readers
LELAND S. PERSON 125
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8. Working Women and Creative Doubles: Getting to
The Marble Faun
DAVID LEVERENZ 144
9. Estranged Allegiances in Hawthorne s Unfinished Romances
RITA K. GOLLIN 159
10. Nathaniel Hawthorne, Writer; or, the Fleeing of the Biographied
BRENDA WINEAPPLE 181
Works Cited 199
Index 215
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Preface
he essays collected in this volume owe their existence to the idea of
a group of  Hawthornians at a meeting of the Executive Council of
Tthe Nathaniel Hawthorne Society in the spring of 2002, that the
bicentennial of this famous writer s birth, on July 4, 2004, was an occasion
for a rediscovery as well as a celebration. Hawthorne s is a reputation that
has never needed revival. Yet how still unsettled, we found ourselves
exclaiming to one another, is the significance of even his greatest and best-
known work, The Scarlet Letter. The staple of the schoolroom, it has also
been pitched onto the dissecting table by critics in each generation since it
was published, and the present one seems no exception.
At that 2002 meeting, the approaching bicentennial moment seemed
appropriate for defining  our Hawthorne. That phrase, of course,
reminded us all of a famous essay with such a title written by Lionel Trilling
in 1964 for the Centenary Essays, published by the The Ohio State Univer-
sity Press to mark the anniversary of Hawthorne s death. That distin-
guished volume, the result of an impulse similar to our own, has been of
enduring importance, even though most of the views it offers have since
been disputed many times in many ways. What might strike one most was
the fact that few who write about Hawthorne today would share their pre-
vailing bias in favor of a portrait of the artist who was more the moral alle-
gorist than the historian. We are not as ready as past interpreters to credit
Hawthorne s own claim to have been a writer of romances little connected
with the social subject matter of the  realist novel. Might not a new com-
memorative volume define our later response?
Having undertaken, at the Executive Council s urging, the editing of
such a collection, I began to solicit contributions among outstanding schol-
ars and critics working on Hawthorne today. I did not propose any overall
unitary thematic topic or common approach. Yet, as it turned out, most of
the essays submitted hung together to a striking degree confirming our
vii
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viii Preface
sense that we had a Hawthorne to call particularly  ours. Almost all exhib-
ited a common intent to explore, in one way or another, in one or another
of Hawthorne s works, the relation of his imagination to  the real  that is,
to the social reality he sometimes claimed to find uninteresting or unrep-
resentable. They make an argument for the interpretation of Hawthorne s
writings as more expressive of the objective common conditions and pub-
lic issues of his day than has been conceded until quite recently. It is this
viewpoint I have chosen to argue for in the essay I have myself contributed
and it is the emphasis intended in its title, Hawthorne and the Real, which
I have borrowed for the book as a whole. But aside from this common
interest, the reader of these essays will find a provocative spirit of contro-
versy among the essays. Not all can be said to be in agreement, and no
reader, perhaps, will equally concur with every one of the essayists, though,
hopefully, all will provoke strong interest. The question of  Hawthorne and
Politics is deepened and complicated by a striking essay by Michael T.
Gilmore which examines the relation of the mid-nineteenth century s sec-
tional crisis to the agency of language and the reflection of this dissension
in Hawthorne. Larry J. Reynolds then argues powerfully for what is still a
controversial view of Hawthorne s response to the slavery issue, bringing
out with particular pertinence his distrust of political terrorism and dis-
covering a representation of this in his interest in the seventeenth-century
witchcraft trials. Both Lawrence Buell and John Carlos Rowe challenge the
traditional assumption of exclusive  Americanness in Hawthorne s writ-
ing by new interpretations of The Scarlet Letter and other works. Nina
Baym s essay, a retrospective survey of the response of  feminist interpre-
tation of Hawthorne over the past thirty years, also offers a reformulation
of her own pioneer views, and Leland S. Person and David Leverenz con-
tribute new studies of Hawthorne s complex responses to femininity.
Hawthorne s late unfinished romances, often dismissed as of minor impor-
tance, are carefully reviewed in their sequence by Rita K. Gollin, who
searches out particularly themes reflecting the quest for a national identity
which preoccupied Hawthorne s countrymen and women. The final essay
by Brenda Wineapple, testifies to the persisting elusiveness and strangeness
along with his relation to real history that Hawthorne offers as a biographic
subject.
My labors as editor have been supported in various ways by the mem-
bers of the Hawthorne Society Executive Council, to whom I offer my
thanks for encouragement and advice in the original conception of this
collection, and in soliciting the essays or evaluating and editing them:
Richard Millington, Rosemary Mims Fisk, Leland S. Person, Nancy Bent-
ley, Samuel C. Coale, Michael T. Gilmore, Brenda Wineapple, Myra Jehlen,
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Preface ix
Brigitte Bailey, and David B. Kesterson. Thanks are due also to Heather Lee
Miller, Acquisitions Editor of the Ohio State University Press, who
responded with warm interest to my original proposal for the book and
who has guided me in putting it together. Above all, I am grateful to the
gifted contributors who consented to join me in this effort by writing
and sometimes rewriting these essays with interest and devotion.
Embedded references to Hawthorne s works are made throughout this
volume by reference to the Centenary Edition, edited by William Charvat
et al. (Columbus, Ohio: Ohio State University Press, 1962 1997), vols.
I XXIII. Each work will be cited by volume number in capitalized Roman
numerals followed by the page number(s) in Arabic numerals.
Millicent Bell
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1
Hawthorne and the Real
MILLICENT BELL
awthorne would always say that his writing offered an insuffi-
cient view of what most persons call  reality. In 1860, when
Hall the fiction he would live to complete had already been writ-
ten, he told his publisher, James T. Fields, that The Marble Faun was hardly
a book he would have chosen to read if someone else had been the author:
My own individual taste is for quite another class of works than those which
I myself am able to write. Have you ever read the novels of Anthony Trol-
lope? They precisely suit my taste; solid and substantial, written on the
strength of beef and through the inspiration of ale, and just as real as if some
giant had hewn a great lump out of the earth and put it under a glass case
with all its inhabitants going about their daily business, and not suspecting
they were being made a show of. (XVIII 229)
Hawthorne did not give a name to the  class to which Trollope s books
belonged. As Henry James later observed, Hawthorne  was not a man with
a literary theory; he was guiltless of a system, and probably had not heard
of realism,  this remarkable compound having (although it was invented
some time earlier) come into general use only since his death (American
Writers 321).
In the 1830s and 1840s, when Hawthorne was writing most of his short
stories and sketches, Balzac s com�die humaine completed its succession of
dense representations of French society, and when Hawthorne was writing
his longer works of fiction in the next decade, the French had already
begun to label as  r�alisme not only the major novels of Balzac, but those
1
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2 Chapter 1
of new writers like Turgenev, Maupassant, the Goncourts, Zola, and
Flaubert, who was notoriously prosecuted for the supposed indecency of
Madame Bovary in 1857. But it is doubtful if Hawthorne was familiar with
this French new wave; indeed, it was not until 1853 that a review of Balzac s
com�die in the Westminster Review employed the English word as a literary
term (203, 212, 214). Hawthorne s influences remained chiefly British writ-
ers whose comprehensive verisimilitude was mixed with contrary effects.
Scott had been his earliest enthusiasm, the inspiration not only of his
romantic apprentice novel, Fanshawe, but of his undertaking to recover an
authentic native past in The Scarlet Letter. In 1851, Hawthorne was reading
David Copperfield to his children during winter evenings in Lenox. He had
just finished The House of the Seven Gables, a work of Dickensian mingling
of the grotesque with social fact though without Dickens s plenitude of ref-
erence. In 1859 he called Thackeray  the greatest living novelist (Kendall
90); the author of Vanity Fair could be said, like Trollope, to have shown
how to seize a lump of the world whole, and place it on view as though
under glass. It was, however, too late for either Thackeray or Trollope to be
his models.
For some of Hawthorne s greatest American contemporaries Emer-
son, Thoreau, and even Melville (despite the whaling-voyage factuality
mixed with the visionary in Moby-Dick) the  real, in any case, was what
might be thought, by less platonic minds, to be the unreal. The  real, to the
romantic transcendentalists, was the  ideal of which physical facts were
merely symbolic. Melville detected in Hawthorne a gloomy view of
humanity that he might have inherited from his puritan ancestors. But this
was something available without reference to that heritage, something to
be felt by any deeply reflective person. It was an insight into the hidden cav-
ern of changeless human nature. It was the poet s task to strike through the
mask of the here and now and even of the there and then. Meville s
Hawthorne was not concerned to know, for its own sake, the historic past,
despite his use of American colonial materials. Nor was he interested in the
mere appearances of the present. He had described himself accurately,
Melville would have said, in his preface to The Snow Image and Other
Twice-told Tales, published in 1851, as one  who has been burrowing, to his
utmost ability, into the depths of our common nature, for the purposes of
psychological romance, and who pursues his researches in that dusky
region, as he needs must, as well by the tact of sympathy as by the light of
observation (XI 4).
Nevertheless, Hawthorne sometimes had a bad conscience about his
apparent neglect of the outward world there to be believed in. Matter,
understood in the  light of observation, was what mattered in a  materi-
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Hawthorne and the Real 3
alist society, and he felt at fault for slighting it. He blamed himself for his
seclusive habits and meager interest in the observable.  I have seen so little
of the world, that I have nothing but thin air to concoct my stories of, and
it is not easy to give a lifelike semblance to such shadowy stuff, Hawthorne
wrote his Bowdoin classmate, Longfellow, when, in 1837, he sent him a
copy of his first book of stories, Twice-told Tales. It was a picture he painted
also for Sophia Peabody with whom he had fallen in love. He told her
that for years he had spent a  long seclusion spinning morbid fantasy out
of his imagination in a  solitary chamber (XV 494). Longfellow was
moved by Hawthorne s letter and wrote a supportive review of his book.
Sophia responded to his plea for rescue from the prison of solitariness and
married him. There was, however, something quite literary a resort to a
familiar romantic convention of the melancholy poet-exile in this
description. It was already proving so effective in the creation of his narra-
tive persona that he would be compelled to give warning in the second edi-
tion of Twice-told Tales that he had exaggerated. But this confession did not
change the impression Hawthorne had made on many readers, and later
critics and biographers would, with only a few exceptions, tend to ignore
it. Arlin Turner, one of Hawthorne s best twentieth-century biographers,
not only would call the letter to Longfellow  one of the most remarkable
instances of self-revelation and self-analysis in our literary archive, but
would declare it to be a key to the writer s lifelong artistic aims. It showed,
says Turner, that  for Hawthorne, the author of moral romances and stud-
ies of human character, the important consideration was not what an event
or a situation was, but rather what his creative imagination conceived it to
be. To him, every object, act or person, including himself and his activities,
was less significant in itself than what it could be taken to represent (1980,
88 89). But Turner took too little account of Hawthorne s joke his less
than candidness and deduced too much about his aesthetics from his
suspect self-portrait.
In fact, the young Hawthorne had not really been the  owl he described
but a habitual daytime stroller about town and in the countryside, and he
had regularly passed summer weeks in the deliberate exploration of New
England, visiting rural communities, recording assiduously his encounters
and observations. An active, outward-directed side to his personality was
also revealed in a less often quoted part of the Longfellow letter when he
added that he intended to shortly leave his  owl s nest for a tour of New
England and was trying to get employment either as an editor or as histo-
rian of the contemplated government expedition to the South Seas,  for
though fixed so long to one spot, I have always had a desire [to] run round
the world. The expedition, eventually led by Charles Wilkes, would be
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4 Chapter 1
gone for four years and circumnavigate the globe, charting three hundred
previously unknown islands and the coast of Antarctica. Hawthorne did
not get the appointment (what a different life history his might have been
if he had!). But his appetite for an untranscendental reality would persist.
The man who had portrayed himself as a solitary who preferred to live
withdrawn from common life found the group withdrawal of Brook Farm
unacceptable. He felt that his stay had been  a dream and he only  a spec-
tre there. He decided that he could  best attain the higher ends of [his] life
by retaining the ordinary relation to society (XV 237),
In the sketch  Old News, published in 1835, Hawthorne had already
written of coming upon collections of old newspaper reports of colonial
times showing the hardships of daily life among the first settlers. He was
prompted to declare that  [a]ll philosophy that would abstract mankind
from the present is no more than words (XI 133). Even when he lived in
Concord, while keeping himself at a certain distance from Emerson and his
followers (Emerson he would call  that everlasting rejecter of all that is, and
seeker for he knows not what ), Hawthorne found more interest in the
rubbish of old newspapers and almanacs accumulated in the Old Manse
than in the theological treatises left behind by resident clergymen. He
wrote in his preface to Mosses from an Old Manse,  It was as if I had found
bits of magic-looking glass with the images of a vanished century in them.
The writers of the old books of theology had  been able to produce noth-
ing half so real, as these newspaper scribblers and almanac makers had
thrown off, in the effervescence of a moment (X 20).
The preface to his Mosses from an Old Manse has not been read suffi-
ciently for its ambiguity. The Manse itself Hawthorne describes as not hav-
ing  quite the aspect of belonging to the material world. The sluggish
Concord River that never occupies itself in turning a solitary mill spindle
or grinding any corn, seems to him a representation of idleness he cannot
afford, and a remove from the actual. But the Concord past sends other
messages. There is the disturbing story told him by Lowell of a wounded
British soldier s murder by a Concord Revolutionary. A  wilder interest in
primal American guilt is aroused when, led by Thoreau, Hawthorne finds
Indian arrowheads near his door and imagines the vanished Indian village
of chiefs and warriors, squaws, and children at play. He wonders if he feels
joy or pain as he looks at the houses and stone fences of the white men who
displaced them. Frightened of what his vision of the true past implies, the
resident of the Manse somewhat frantically concludes:  But this is non-
sense. The Old Manse is better than a thousand wigwams (X 11).
Living among the better-incomed Concord intellectuals, Hawthorne s
sense of the untranscendental had only increased. He could not keep up
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Hawthorne and the Real 5
with the rent on the Manse, property belonging to the Emerson family,
though he and Sophia sold apples that grew on the place. They moved with
their new baby back to Salem to live with his mother s relatives, the same
humiliating shelter he had accepted for years after college. He would feel,
repeatedly, the common American shame of pecuniary failure when, after
his expulsion from the Salem Custom House, he had had to accept a fund
raised for him by friends.  Ill-success in life is really and justly a matter of
shame, he said (XV 309). Not until he was forty-eight did Hawthorne
enjoy near-solvency. After the critical success of The Scarlet Letter and then,
in rapid succession, the publication of The House of the Seven Gables and
The Blithedale Romance, he was able, at last, to buy a house of his own. But
his life would continue to the end to be fraught with matter-of-fact reali-
ties that a propensity for dreaming could not obscure.
Hawthorne understood how the machinery of social power engaged the
ambitious in the sleights and maneuvers by which a literary career might
be promoted. During the public excitement over his dismissal as Surveyor
of the Salem Custom House after the electoral victory of the Whigs over
the Democrats, he was portrayed by his supporters as a man with no inter-
est in politics and politicking the owl-man image again attracting sym-
pathy. Hawthorne himself asked a friend to tell the Whig party leader,
Rufus Choate, that he was  an inoffensive man of letters having obtained
a pitiful little office on no other plea than his pitiful little literature (XVI
264). But Hawthorne had been more  political than he pretended. He had
not, it is true, followed custom by firing all the Whig survivors who
remained on his staff when he took office, although he had got his post in
the first place through the efforts of friends among the Democrats. But he
may really have been guilty of some party favoritism the malfeasance of
which he was accused by his enemies. He was hardly unworldly.
It is not surprising that Hawthorne s other friendships made in college
with future politicians Jonathan Cilley, Horatio Bridge, and Franklin Pierce
proved far closer than his relation with Longfellow, their class laureate.
These less intellectual friends were active to secure him a government
appointment even before he got his first job in the Boston Custom house in
1839, and they continued to assist him by such efforts thereafter. It has been
held that his eventual literary fame was made possible by his contacts with
the literary establishment writers like Longfellow or Emerson and his cir-
.
cle (Tompkins 1985). But more useful than these had been the Democratic
journalist and editor John O Sullivan, who published two dozen of
Hawthorne s tales and sketches in the Democratic Review, a party organ,
between 1838 and 1845. Hawthorne s publisher, Fields, the canny literary
entrepreneur who understood the literary market better than anyone,
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6 Chapter 1
became his most reliable counselor, important to him to the end of his life.
But dearest of all was Pierce, an intimate on every level. Hawthorne s final,
most lucrative government post was that of U. S. Consul in Liverpool, the
reward which he must have expected (though he played innocent) for
writing the future president s campaign biography. Pierce was already odi-
ous to northern intellectuals including members of Sophia s family for
his support of the Missouri compromise, and Emerson would call him the
worst president the country had ever had. But he was a devoted supporter
in a friend s times of difficulty. And with this  practical man of the world s
conservative temporizing, Hawthorne s own pessimism about human pos-
sibilities was ultimately in tune.
We are entitled, I want to urge, now, to read Hawthorne s own direc-
tions to readers with the same distrust due his descriptions of his personal
character as that of someone remote from common reality. Hawthorne has
misled critics who have so often begun discussion of his fiction by quoting
the brief passage in The House of the Seven Gables preface which offers a
definition of the romance with its vague grant of  a certain latitude, both
as to its fashion and material, which he would not have felt himself entitled
to assume, had he professed to be writing a Novel  that is, a work in
which literal realism played a major part. Romancers, among whom
Hawthorne numbered himself, were not, like the novelist, obliged to aim at
 a very minute fidelity not merely to the possible, but to the probable and
ordinary course of man s experience. But he may have been making his
discrimination with some irresponsibility, as if he were not taking it as seri-
ously as his critics since have done. It needs to be asked how much and
what sort of latitude makes the difference in question. Where can the line
be confidently drawn between the supposedly different genres? He goes on
to allow, almost as an afterthought, that the romantic latitude he speaks of
must be resorted to restrainedly. The writer should, preferably,  mingle the
Marvelous rather as a slight delicate, and evanescent flavor than as any por-
tion of the actual substance of the dish offered to the Public (II 1).
Hawthorne thus reduces the role of improbability or fantasy an impor-
tant aspect of his discrimination to an inconsequence. Hawthorne must
have known that there were few examples he could name that might be air-
ily set apart with no admixture of each other. No master of the novel ever
offered fuller and more direct observation of English commonplace life
than Dickens, but no writer of romance indulged more audaciously than
Dickens in sinuosities of improbable plot and the romantic grotesque.
Hawthorne may have been uncertain when he himself was writing
romantically or realistically. The Scarlet Letter is strongly historical in
detail, based on the germ of a true episode and framed in an exact calen-
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Hawthorne and the Real 7
dar of known historic events, a story plain and probable except for occa-
sional moments disclaimed by the narrator as unverifiable (this, itself, a
realist gesture). Its subtitle,  A Romance, is Hawthorne s own, to be found
on the manuscript title page that is the sole surviving fragment of his book
in his own hand. This was something more generic than the  A Tale set
beneath the title of Fanshawe. But, originally, he had wanted to include his
longer colonial tale in a collection to be called  Old time Legends: Together
with Sketches, experimental and ideal.  Experimental is an unclear desig-
nation, perhaps suggesting  experiential or dealing with reality in some
way; based on experience, as opposed to fanciful or ideal. The sketches
would have conditioned readers response to the short stories and this
newer work also representing old New England. The narrator of The Scar-
let Letter refers, in the book s final sentence, to the  concluded legend just
retold returning to the first proposed title of the collection, and suggest-
ing a traditional tale with some claim to historicity.  A Romance may have
been a last-minute decision. Fields had advertised the book as The Scarlet
Letter: A Novel.
The Custom House preface asserts, though only pretendingly, the his-
toricity of what it introduces the rewriting of a previous manuscript
derived from the verbal testimony of witnesses and confirmed by material
evidence, the actual letter once worn by Hester Prynne. And the
Hawthorne narrator offers to show Surveyor Pue s document and the
embroidered scrap of cloth to any skeptical inquirer. Of course, this claim
is an old novelistic device not meant to deceive. But on one level it succeeds
at least in asserting that the tale to be told has something like the authority
of historic record; it is in congruence with the frame of recorded colonial
history within which it is cunningly placed. Hawthorne also presents him-
self as a kind of witness from later time by invoking the participations of
his Puritan ancestors in persecutions of which Hester s ordeal is an exam-
ple, and admitting that he is one of them in nature. Their views and acts,
their historic exclusions and executions, made them and him complicit
in the punishment of deviant persons like Hester.
In a passage too readily seen as a port of entry into Hawthorne s aes-
thetic,  The Custom House preface does seem to declare, nevertheless,
that the writer s imagination was a dream realm which bore only indirect
relation to the obvious  true of waking experience. But this, too, is less
forthright than has been supposed. The  familiar room, the deserted par-
lor where he sits, is no fantasy and has no romantic strangeness. The coal
fire and moonlight which are its only illumination make every object
 minutely visible  as in realist description rather than indefinite or dis-
torted. Around him are the ordinary objects of a  domestic scene  the
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8 Chapter 1
table with its workbasket, the sofa and bookcase, the child s shoe and toys.
Yet he claims it  suitable for a romance-writer to get acquainted with his
illusive guests (I 35), though we cannot be sure what kind of guests these
are. Are the personages who people his tale unreal or unlikely fantasies,
romance silhouettes, or psychologically  rounded novelistic characters?
Does the romantically demonic Chillingworth someone E. M. Forster
called a  flat character inhabit the same generic atmosphere as Hester?
Hawthorne is insistent about the romance status of his later fiction. But
in the preface to The Marble Faun he remarks upon the difficulty, for a for-
eign visitor, of composing  a portrait of Italian manners and character 
that is, a detailed and accurate novelistic presentation of a people in its
society. He observed that he had  lived too long abroad not to be aware that
a foreigner seldom acquires that knowledge of a country, at once flexible
and profound, which may justify him in endeavoring to idealize its traits.
Does this not imply that if he chose, he might have written realistically
when his subject was his familiar homeland? He had, actually, declared that
impossible when he wrote his three earlier books located in his native
scene, all labeled outright romances by himself, and denied their status as
portraits of American manners and character. To muddle the matter more,
Hawthorne also declares, in this same Marble Faun preface, that the ideal
materials for romance had been absent from that American scene where
 actualities were  so insisted upon. No author, without a trial, he writes,
 can conceive of the difficulty of writing a Romance about a country where
there is no shadow, no antiquity, no mystery, no picturesque and gloomy
wrong, nor anything but a common-place prosperity, in broad and simple
daylight, as is happily the case with my dear native land  unlike Italy,
which had all the requisite sites and props including especially ruins,
Romance needed,  like ivy, lichens, and wall flowers . . . to make it grow
(IV 3). These supposed absences should have (but had not) prevented him
from writing those three earlier books if romances they were! How had
Hawthorne managed to write them without those essentials? Or had he
been writing more realistically than he admitted?
In 1879, when he wrote his book about Hawthorne from which I
quoted at the beginning of this essay, Henry James took over Hawthorne s
confusions and added his own to his account of an American writer s
handicaps when he referred to the  large number of elements that were
absent . . . for a romancer looking for subjects in  Hawthorne s America
and went right on, as though his change of term were of no importance, to
speak of the contrasting  fund of suggestion for a novelist available in the
 European spectacle. (emphasis added). His list is not Hawthorne s except
for its syntactic rhythm of  no this . . . no that, though James has been
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Hawthorne and the Real 9
assumed to be merely repeating and expanding his predecessor in an
almost humorous fashion. But his augmentations make it a recipe no
longer suited for romance as Hawthorne had defined it. Instead, they sug-
gest the furnishings of its supposed contrary in the presumed world of
social institutions like an aristocracy, church or army, and of palaces, cas-
tles, manors, country houses, parsonages, thatched cottages, cathedrals,
abbeys, little Norman churches, universities and public schools, even race
tracks a heterogeneous rundown that includes, in addition to
Hawthorne s ivied ruins, ingredients for a com�die humaine (American
Writers 351 52). It was the novel, of course as developed by Balzac and
his followers, and by the English realists that required this plenitude
and not, conventionally, the romance.
It seems likely that James s own struggles to redefine realism for his own
use may have brought him to suspect that there was something disputable
about the view that the novel had to  compete with life by means of exact
and full replication of exterior appearances, or that this replication was any
more to be trusted than something more freely imagined and he sus-
pected, rightly, I think, Hawthorne s own suspicion of the terms he himself
had used. He was seeking out ways of implying a verifiable social world by
other means, including the development of the inner mirror of conscious-
ness. James deplored what he called Hawthorne s penchant for allegory and
the thinness of his depictions of persons and events. But he added a state-
ment that reflects his judgment of the naturalists he had recently met in
Paris and redeems Hawthorne for the  real, after all. He declares that
Hawthorne s writing
testifies to the sentiments of the society in which he flourished, almost as
pertinently (proportions observed) as Balzac and some of his descendants
MM. Flaubert and Zola testify to the manners and morals of the French
people. He had certainly not proposed to himself to give an account of the
social idiosyncrasies of his fellow citizens, for his touch on such points is
always light and vague, he has none of the apparatus of an historian, and his
shadowy style of portraiture never suggests a rigid standard of accuracy.
Nevertheless, he virtually offers the most vivid reflection of New England life
that has found its way into our literature. (American Writers 321)
A few years later, in his  The Art of Fiction, James finds the novel/romance
distinction sterile and arbitrary and calls these pigeon-holes of romantic
and real  clumsy separations [that] appear . . . to have been made by critics
and readers for their own convenience, and to help them out of their occa-
sional queer predicaments, but to have little reality or interest for the pro-
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10 Chapter 1
ducer. He adds,  I can think of no obligation to which the  romancer
would not be held equally with the novelist and deprecates a dull catego-
rizer like Walter Besant, to whom his essay is responding, for his  habit of
calling this or that work of one s fellow-artist a romance unless it be, of
course, simply for the pleasantness of the thing, as for instance when
Hawthorne gave this heading to his story of Blithedale (American Writers
55 56). James may be grasping at Hawthorne s idea of a mixed form to
which the name neither of novel nor of Romance, in their traditional
senses, is applicable. Much later, writing a preface to The American for its
revision in the Scribner New York Edition in 1907 and feeling the need to
justify this early work s violations of strict probability James attempted
once more to define  romance but, recalling his dislike of this tag, he went
on to admit that the great realists he admired had somehow achieved a
higher art in which such a distinction became insignificant.  Men of large
responding imagination before the human scene, like Scott or Balzac, even
 the coarse, comprehensive prodigious Zola were, he wrote, masters of fic-
tion in which  the current remains therefore extraordinarily rich and
mixed, washing us successively with the warm wave of the near and famil-
iar and the tonic shock, as it may be, of the far and strange (European
Writers 1062 63).
Despite this wisdom of James s, which I have called upon for support at
this later time in critical history, Hawthorne continued for many years to
be taken not as a realist in any sense, but as the romantic fabulist or the
transcendental symbolist Melville had hailed. Melville s idea that
Hawthorne s historical fictions were illustrations of universal truths rather
than exact reflections of a particular past had its most powerful re-state-
ment in the mid-twentieth century, when F. O. Matthiessen (1941) also
said, as Melville had, that Hawthorne s view of man s existence was simply
an ancient tragic one like Shakespeare s. Matthiessen also detected in
Hawthorne the idea that human life could be read allegorically. It was an
idea derived from a long tradition of which Puritanism was an early Amer-
ican expression and Emerson a later one. It seemed arguable that
Hawthorne could have adapted from the Puritans just what Emerson, also,
had inherited; that is, a way of reading history as a divinely written text, so
subduing its resistant obscurities the stuff of realism to a scheme of
universal meaning. Of course, neither Puritanism nor Emerson was the
necessary origin of a post World War II  new critical penchant to which
Matthiessen also responded, one that tended to detach literary works from
immediate sociohistorical  context. Reacting against 1930s critical read-
ings that reduced literature to evidence of historical determinism, some
postwar critics preferred to see Hawthorne as a symbolist or allegorist
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Hawthorne and the Real 11
whose meanings were related to the national experience only in the most
abstract way. If he could be said to represent American life, it was because
he represented its enduring myths. Along with Emerson, Thoreau, and
Melville, the giants of Matthiessen s  American Renaissance, Hawthorne
was thought by Henry Nash Smith (1950) and R. W. B. Lewis (1955) to
express a pristine  Adamic spirit at the heart of American culture, the
product of its special origins in a  virgin land empty of the fixed institu-
tions and traditions of older nations. Richard Chase, in a widely influential
book (1957), argued that Hawthorne had been a writer of romances rather
than realist novels because romance was the inevitable literary genre for
American writers from Brockden Brown to Faulkner, the ultimate expres-
sion of the frontier experience of persistingly unfurnished American con-
ditions.
In the 1970s and 1980s these ideas were seen to be inadequate to
account for the whole of American culture in the antebellum period as new
scholars and critics discovered another American Renaissance of the
uncanonized or marginalized, particularly writing by women and African
Americans. It became obvious that the supposed American vacancy was
filled with realities that had not been ignored by these previously less cele-
brated writers. But had these realities been as much ignored by Hawthorne
and other  white, male establishment writers as appeared? It now may
seem that it is more accurate to say that evasion of history was really not
possible even for those cultural icons who have been unnaturally separated
from the general stream by a dubious critical elevation. Their supposed
suppressions may be only apparent.
 Historical Romance may be an especially misleading term in
Hawthorne s case. It is true that his early stories incorporated only a few
of the visibilities of persons and places gathered from his reading in his-
torical colonial sources. He liked, sometimes, to elaborate an abstract
moral paradox for which his historical tone barely provided a lightly indi-
cated background. But the reader who has naively taken a literalist view of
Hawthorne s sketches and stories about seventeenth-century New Eng-
land and, above all, of The Scarlet Letter, is justified. These repeatedly
incorporate some incident or description that is not merely the incidental
product of Hawthorne s idle browsing in authentic record, not merely a
way of distancing what transpires in the tale from the reader s sense of the
real. Even when the tale told is imaginary, Hawthorne s stories of early
New England are historically resonant. One of his best,  My Kinsman,
Major Molyneux, was rediscovered and appreciated in the 1950s as it had
not been before, but mostly as a psychological fable of youth s coming to
manhood though it is implicated in a complex vision of the antecedents
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12 Chapter 1
of the American Revolution, as Q. D. Leavis (1951) finally pointed out.
One critic of the day, Seymour Gross, wrote,  History as history had but
very little meaning for Hawthorne artistically. The Gentle Boy, a story
about Quakers in the Bay Colony at a precise moment in 1659, seemed to
this interpreter  the clearest instance of how Hawthorne deliberately
attempted to transmute an historical phenomenon into an elemental con-
dition of existence (Gross 99).
Hawthorne, however, appears to have undertaken, at an early stage, to
conduct a deliberate inquiry into the historical meaning of his local past
in projected collections with titles like  Seven Tales of My Native Land
and  Provincial Tales, as Michael Colacurcio (1984) has pointed out. The
Scarlet Letter shows everywhere the traces of its origins in his regional and
familial reality, based as it is not only on the true story of the woman con-
demned for adultery and forced to wear her  A like a brand, but also
locating the story in the enveloping reality of the Massachusetts colony.
The choice between use of the fictionized past either as a setting for a
gothic tale or, instead, as an encounter with historical reality is expressed
precisely in Hawthorne s early story  Alice Doane s Appeal, when the
authorial narrator describes his attempt to entertain two young ladies
his representative readers during a walk to Salem s Gallows Hill. He
offers, first, as illustration of his art, a  wondrous tale of old times  of
brother-sister love,  distempered jealousy, fratricidal murder, devilish
malice at which m�lange of gothic romance his young auditors merely
laugh. Only then does he undertake to  see whether truth were more pow-
erful than fiction, and depicts the veritable horrors of Salem in 1692, the
witchcraft trials, the zeal of Cotton Mather, the scaffold of executions
and makes his hearers shudder. At the end he calls for a  sadly commem-
orative monument on the spot, as though he desires, himself, to make art
out of historic memory
But as even Colacurcio has insuffiently noted, the shorter tales of the
New England colonies, and even Hawthorne s masterpiece, The Scarlet Let-
ter, conduct an inquiry into the nature of a past still active in the American
present. Such commemorative recovery of the past can be said to partici-
pate in America s mounting need, in the antebellum period, to understand
its early beginnings in order to determine what its unity in diversity was
coming to mean. Orators like Daniel Webster celebrated the two hun-
dredth anniversary of the Plymouth landing as an occasion for honoring
 our attachment to the principles of civil and religious liberty for which
[the pilgrims] encountered the dangers of the ocean, the storms of heaven,
the violence of savages, disease, exile, and famine, to enjoy and establish
(Bell 1971, 9). But the persecutors of Roger Williams and Anne Hutchin-
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Hawthorne and the Real 13
son not to speak of Salem s witches represented, as well, a precedent of
repression rather than liberty, and in 1850, as The Scarlet Letter was pub-
lished, Webster supported the Fugitive Slave Act.  What to the American
slave is your Fourth of July? Frederick Douglass asked on Independence
Day two years later (Zinn 182). Slavery was not only a contradiction dis-
coverable in the past, but the source of mounting conflict while the ante-
bellum years were riven by contesting ideas of nationality. As the United
States encompassed greater diversities, it also aspired to a consolidated
nationhood. In 1838, Hawthorne had already exhibited the predictive colo-
nial contradiction with exquisite precision in  Endicott and the Red Cross.
The sketch appears to conclude with unqualified praise of Endicott tearing
the symbol of English domination from the colonial flag. His gesture is
linked to the future Revolution:  We look back though the mist of ages, and
recognize in the rending of the Red Cross from New England s banner, the
first omen of that deliverance which our fathers consummated, after the
bones of stern Puritans had lain more than a century in the dust (IX 441).
Yet this tribute is undercut by the reader s recollection of the narrator s
description of other presences in that early scene the Catholic in the
stocks, the labeled  Wanton Gospeller on the scaffold and his companion
with her tongue cruelly held down by a cleft stick, and others suffering
mutilation or, at least, symbolic branding, like the man condemned to wear
a hangman s halter or the woman who wears an  A signifying her adultery.
This last victim of Puritan severity is already Hester Prynne. She not only
wears her  A for the same cause but anticipates Hester s reinterpretation of
its meaning. Criminalized by Endicott, the woman of the Letter has
embroidered her badge with gold thread  so that the capital A might have
been thought to mean Admirable (IX 435). Hawthorne draws in both
cases upon the early American experience of justified revolt even Anne
Hutchinson s antinomianism to which Hester refers herself.
One might take notice of the suggestive symbolic discovery of Hester s
embroidered Letter in the Custom House rather than somewhere outside
it. It was in the realm of recovered fact that storage room of the past
above the stagnant office where he spent his days that the Surveyor found
inspiration for the masterpiece to be written upon his forced exit. On the
lower floor of the Custom House itself, he said, it had been  folly, with the
materiality of this daily life pressing so intrusively upon me, to attempt to
fling myself back into another age; or to insist on creating the semblance of
a world out of airy matter (I 37). But though a fictional world built
entirely out of  airy matter remained impossible even after his escape,
Hawthorne would, very soon, fling himself back into another age perceived
through veracious history.  The past was not dead (I 27).
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14 Chapter 1
It was not dead because it was refigured in the present. In the fullness
of character Hawthorne awards her, Hester is, after all, incongruous in
colonial Boston. She is a nineteenth-century woman imagined as inhabit-
ing a seventeenth-century world. Her growth into an exponent of new
freedoms is the center of her story, her originating sexual transgression
not being even worth naming within the narrative. Hawthorne s narrator
tries to account for her anachronistic character by the fact that she is
someone whose exceptional mind, provoked by sufferings and loneliness,
is able to anticipate ideas not conceivable by others in the New World:  In
her lonesome cottage, by the sea shore, thoughts visited her, such as dared
to enter no other dwelling in New England (I 164). But her views are only
explicable as those of a radical American woman of the year 1850. Hester
thinks of her love affair with Dimmesdale like a nineteenth-century
romantic when she tells him it had a  consecration of its own. (I 195). As
though she is already Hawthorne s feminist contemporary, Margaret
Fuller, she conceives of a time when the relation of the sexes will be
changed. Extending the implications of her dissidence further, one may
even be ready to suspect her adherence to other revolutionary ideas of the
modern era. Her feminism suggests other nineteenth-century American
causes embraced along with their own by feminist militants in
Hawthorne s later life.
Without mentioning slavery directly, The Scarlet Letter evokes the ear-
liest American polity to discover the presumption. that sustained it in
Hawthorne s day in a land that had been supposed providentially voided
for the white man. Still on the American conscience were the excluded
Native Americans glimpsed at the edge of the gathered populace of Hester s
Boston. They seem to arouse some interest in Hawthorne s narrator, who
remarks upon the Indians in their deerskin robes. They watch the cere-
mony of the Puritan Election Day as they also had watched Endicott s flag-
tearing in Hawthorne s description. They  stood apart with countenances
of inflexible gravity, beyond what even the Puritan aspect could attain (I
232). We are invited to wonder about the meaning of their gravity. We can
also recall the remarkable passage already referred to in the sketch prefac-
ing Mosses from an Old Manse. in which Hawthorne expresses his mixed
feeling about the genocide of the Native American.
More absolutely suppressed from the text of The Scarlet Letter is the
witness of the Africans who formed a part of the first immigrant settle-
ments, as Hawthorne knew, for their descendants were still living in his
Salem as well as in Boston. The history of slavery since colonial times could
not have been invisible from the vantage of such slave-trade outposts as
Salem, Boston, and Liverpool. Writing The Scarlet Letter only a decade
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Hawthorne and the Real 15
before the Civil War, Hawthorne understood already the consequences of a
long social pretense of their non-presence. Later, in his ambiguous Civil
War essay,  Chiefly About War Matters, he drew attention to an apt sym-
bol in the coincidence that the same ship that had brought early white set-
tlers to Boston, had, soon after, come again with a cargo of African slaves,
white and black thus linked in commitment to the New World. Slavery was
an ancient gloomy wrong too grave to be called  picturesque, though
Hawthorne had outrageously declared, in The Marble Faun preface, his
regret that America was a country with  no picturesque and gloomy
wrong for Romance to feed on. He did not forget the crimes against
witches and dissidents in which his ancestors had participated. Nor could
he have been unaware of the history of slavery, the long perpetrated wrong
that had become the burning issue of his day.
If black men or women are absent from the scene of The Scarlet Letter,
their condition is shadowed in Hester s. Her figurative chains recall the
slave s literal ones. After her condemnation, Hester is thought by
Hawthorne s Puritans to have become their  life-long bond-slave (I 227).
It is no accident that the image Hawthorne uses to represent her situation
is that of the chains that bind the slave:  The chain that bound her was of
iron links and galling to her inmost soul (I 80). Her desire for a greater
freedom is thought to resemble the literal condition of the black slave flee-
ing his enslavement when she throws away  the fragments of a broken
chain (I 164). When The Scarlet Letter was being written, American fem-
inists had already begun to use the word  bondage to describe the state of
women, to liken their unfreedom to the slave s. Hester on her scaffold in
the book s opening scene is even represented in Howard Roberts s 1872
sculpture as leaning her hand upon a post from which a fragment of
linked chain still hangs even though she no longer bears the shackle on her
wrist or ankle. As Jean Fagan Yellin (1989) has shown, a rhetorical femi-
nist tradition identified the slave s condition with that of all women. There
was, also, an evolving popular iconography which transmuted the plea of
a kneeling, fettered slave to a white man  I am a man and your
brother  to the appeal of a fettered black woman to a white woman,  I
am a woman and your sister. As the  free white woman s sister, the slave
reminds the other woman not only of her right to be free but also of the
white woman s own bondage. She implies that the woman she addresses
might also be reminding men of her sibling equality to them. The stand-
ing white woman to whom the appeal is made has herself become, like
Roberts s Hester, a chained victim of a master s will. Early agitators for
female liberation like Sophia Hawthorne s two sisters, Elizabeth Peabody
and Mary Mann, committed themselves to the anti-slavery cause with
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16 Chapter 1
some sense of this identification. The Scarlet Letter is thus the biography
of a feminist whose wider sense of the meaning of human equality can be
presumed.
Hawthorne professed to dislike female propagandists for reform, but in
The Scarlet Letter as well as in The Blithedale Romance and The Marble
Faun, a feminist woman is the magnetic center of his story, irresistible to
others despite her odor of transgression. These books express Hawthorne s
distaste for female reformers who campaigned for the rights of political
self-expression as well as for the abolitionist cause by raising their voices
from public platforms. But he cannot help his own responsive fascination
even if he compels Hester, Zenobia, and Miriam to surrender any hope of
the immediate fulfillment of their missions. Zenobia and Miriam do not
address themselves to public audiences in our hearing, actually. Hester,
especially, is a silent woman whose insurrectionary thoughts are unheard
almost until the end. She finally cannot though she would have wished
it become an orating prophetess of personal independence, like Anne
Hutchinson. But when she returns to resume her marginal place in the
Boston community, it is not because she accepts the old judgment upon
her but because she does, after all, have a prophecy to leave to her sisters,
though personally and privately conveyed. The prophecy is melioristic
and seems evasive in its rejection of feminist urgency.  [A]t some brighter
period, when the world should have grown ripe for it, in Heaven s own
time, a new truth would be revealed, in order to establish the whole rela-
tion of man and woman on a surer ground (I 263). This is precisely the
way Hawthorne wanted to be able to think about the withering away of
slavery  one of those evils which divine Providence does not leave to be
remedied by human contrivances but which, in its own good time . . . it
causes to vanish like a dream (V 416 17), as he said in the campaign biog-
raphy he wrote for Pierce. Hawthorne s language analogizes the causes of
abolition and female liberation both causes whose exigence seemed
obvious to others in his day.
In the light of such implicit reference to Hawthorne s own present real-
ity as well as to that of past history, we may allow ourselves some skepti-
cism concerning his claim, in introducing the historic otherness of The
Scarlet Letter, that he had been unable to  diffuse thought and imagination
through the opaque substance of today (I 37). But he makes this assertion
even concerning the two novel/romances he wrote promptly after, though
his recognition of the reality of his contemporary America is openly evi-
dent in them. When he writes about his own modern Salem in The House
of the Seven Gables, Hawthorne warns the reader unconvincingly that his
story should be read as  having a great deal more to do with the clouds
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Hawthorne and the Real 17
overhead than with any portion of the actual soil of the County of
Essex (II 3). He would insist that in writing The Blithedale Romance, his
 concern with the Socialist Community [was] merely to establish a theatre,
a little removed from the highway of ordinary travel, where the creatures of
his brain may play their phantasmagoric antics, without exposing them to
too close a comparison with the actual events of real lives (III 1). But he
admitted that he had stayed a while at Brook Farm and, as everyone knew,
he had been a friend of Margaret Fuller, who resembled his fictional Zeno-
bia. But these were more than the customary disclaimers to avoid suit.
They were a deliberate denial of an art of reference that he was disinclined
to confess to. Even the literally identifiable if dead Roman landscape of art
objects and ruins replicated in The Marble Faun, had, he said, been ser-
viceable only as a  fairy precinct, where actualities are not terribly insisted
upon as they are or must be, in America (IV 3). But his American scene
cannot be dismissed as a  fairy precinct. Hawthorne s constant claim was
that he aimed to escape that American insistence upon actuality, but we
may have taken him too readily at his word.
In the two fictions set in the America of his own time, Hawthorne no
longer reads the present in the past, but faces the reality of the present
directly. The sense of this in The House of the Seven Gables is undeniable,
despite its gothic features ancestral curse, decaying old mansion, hidden
document, mysterious painting, and the rest. All of these blow away in the
end, routed by everyday sunshine, that daylight which is also nineteenth-
century positivism and optimism. Hawthorne strove to insert in this book
what he called in its preface  the realities of the moment. He gave signifi-
cant importance to such new phenomena as the railroad and the
daguerreotype. Both technical innovations enforced new modes of con-
sciousness an awareness of simultaneously merged experiences acquired
by Clifford in his flight from the ancient house of the Pyncheons and a new
literal vision, threateningly percipient, possessed by Holgrave with his
camera.
But the corrupt politics Hawthorne knew all about is represented in
the career of Jaffrey Pyncheon. And the presence of mesmerism in the
book is not merely for its gothic effect but because it represents the sub-
jugation of weaker wills, especially those of women, but also of the subject
wills of workers, to the powerful. Ancient crime persisting in its effects
into the living present is the governing motif of The House of the Seven
Gables, though its author struggles, along with his characters, to escape
such continuities and to break into a more democratic world. And Hol-
grave, the enthusiast of the latest fads and minor reform movements, is a
critic also of the fundamental curse of inherited  real property. His is the
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18 Chapter 1
ultimate radicalism of a socialist-communist theory of social equaliza-
tion. The  romance plot structure by which the descendant of the Maules
triumphs over long-privileged authority and revenges an ancient appro-
priation is profoundly social and political. But we are compelled by the
book to ask at what cost a mere storyteller and  idler (as Hawthorne s
own ancestors would have called Holgrave as well as Hawthorne) might
achieve a place in the modern world. The modern world no less than the
Puritan would really have regarded such a person as no more than negli-
gible. There may be more pessimism and irony than we have supposed in
the fact that the erstwhile revolutionary and artist does not so much sur-
render his old views as submit to what he has vanquished. He accepts the
uses of those powers over others his mesmerist talents had represented,
even though these have been renounced. The descendant of a carpen-
ter/house builder moves into another old house, albeit in the unpolluted
country, though he had once believed that every generation should
destroy the structures elevated by its predecessors and build anew. The
curse of inherited wealth is not to be forgotten in the transfer from the
House of the Seven Gables to this alternate Pyncheon property. Masculin-
ist hegemony is doubtfully corrected by the domestic fairy influence of a
Pyncheon country cousin.
The Blithedale Romance is still less committed to romance formula. A
suspicion of utopian expectation itself a romantic idea of escape from the
social world operates in the book. Blithedale may be a mythical Happy
Place where the refugees from reality discover reality again. But it is also the
latest instance of utopian delusion. Hawthorne is distrustful of the con-
temporary reformer personality as instanced either by Hollingsworth or
even the passionate Zenobia. As in The House of the Seven Gables, mes-
merism suggests social as well as personal appropriation of the wills of oth-
ers. Priscilla knits little purses by hand but looks like a mill girl from
Lowell. As a hypnotic medium she is a representative of the new slavery of
the factory which bound thousands like her to mechanized needlework
under the rule of a the male factory manager. This darkest of Hawthorne s
books ends not only with the humiliation of Hollingsworth, but with
Zenobia s drowning, a reflection of Hawthorne s feeling about Fuller, from
whose writings her speeches are borrowed. Her stiffened body being pulled
from the water in which she drowned seems a nightmare imagining of
Fuller, whose body was never recovered after the shipwreck in which she
died on her voyage home from revolutionary Rome. Finally, in this only
one of Hawthorne s longer fictions written in the first person, Coverdale,
perhaps speaking for Hawthorne, admits that he had a  decided tendency
toward the actual. Reviewing The Blithedale Romance in the Westminster
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Hawthorne and the Real 19
Review, the anonymous reviewer (perhaps George Eliot) protested the
author s expectation that his community could be passed off as a mere con-
venience of romantic framing.  Would he paint an ideal slave-plantation
merely for the beauty of the thing, without pretending to elicit a conclu-
sion, favorable or otherwise, to slavery? (Crowley 1970, 263). For whatever
complex personal reasons, Hawthorne seemed always to want to deny the
thrust of his own representations.
As I have been saying, one feels inclined with James to dispense with the
realism/romance classification in studying Hawthorne s fiction. It certainly
proves an obstacle to a full response to him. We may even find grounds in
a more thoroughgoing materialism than his own for rejecting his unconfi-
dent sense that an impermeable barrier divides the real from the fantastic.
We may want to say that nothing the writer writes escapes the taint of ref-
erence, that the realities of literal history speak even through the figura-
tions of fantasy. On the other hand, considering that Hawthorne put
himself so insistently in the anti-realist camp, we may, in quite another way,
be tempted to find in him an anticipation of a recent skepticism. He
claimed to have  read and reread Montaigne in early youth when his sis-
ter borrowed the Essais from the Salem Athenaeum on his behalf. Some-
how he foresaw a  postmodern way of thinking that  reality is a word
always to be set in quotation marks as a part of the mind s figuration. It is
remarkable though not generally remarked upon how Hawthorne
expresses the suspicion that the  real cannot be confidently distinguished
from the imaginary because all we can claim to know in either case is the
problematic world of our ideas. James, despite his admirations for Balzac,
initiated a realism that was above all, relativist, the register of how we take
what we see and so ushered in the modernism of Joyce and Woolf. If this
too, was still mimesis, as Eric Auerbach believed, it was no longer that clas-
sic Realism that was the mode of a vision of life as not only confidently rec-
ognizable in its details, but confidently interpretable.
Hawthorne himself sometimes seems to make an ironic mockery of our
search for stable meanings. How faithful to our experience of reading his
stories or novels are the morals he sometimes announces?  Be true, be true
. . . may be only  one of many meanings that press upon us from the poor
minister s miserable experience, the Hawthorne narrator concedes as he
concludes The Scarlet Letter. Hawthorne s notorious cultivation of ambi-
guity in his stories seems to mean that he, like ourselves, longed vainly for
the classic realist s confidence in the singularity and accessibility of mean-
ing, the structures of story that lead to an indisputable consequence like the
outcome of natural law, the solidity of a world which is not undermined by
doubt of our perceptions. But his fiction does not grant to our perceptions
Bell_CH1_3rd.qxd 3/11/2005 10:53 AM Page 20
20 Chapter 1
an indissoluble bond with unquestionable reality. What really happened to
Young Goodman Brown in the forest? Was Beatrice Rappaccini corrupt or
innocent? Had Robin betrayed his kinsman Major Molyneux or risen to an
adult vision of the necessary historical future? Was Owen Warland s wor-
ship of the Beautiful a failure to accommodate to life as it was or the tri-
umph of art and idealism? Such questions remain unanswered at the
conclusion of some of Hawthorne s finest tales. The open-endedness of his
plots is a denial of classic realism and where his art faltered, as in The
Marble Faun, the open end looked only like irresolution, and readers to
Hawthorne s annoyance protested because he had not  cleared every-
thing up and told what happened further to Donatello and Miriam.
Hawthorne was even forced by popular demand against his own inclina-
tion to add a clarifying  postscript to the second printing of The Marble
Faun.
In his masterpiece, The Scarlet Letter, however, it was precisely this sus-
pension of conclusion and explanation that makes final judgment impos-
sible in the case of Hester, who fails and triumphs, is censured or
vindicated from moment to moment as we read Hawthorne s book. Per-
haps Hawthorne s denials of his own referentiality were rooted in his per-
sonal habit of distrust and misgiving in an age of conflicted certainties.
Realist reality at least as it was understood in the nineteenth-century
novel was felt to be something knowable, just as nature had become
knowable through science; hence, the general preference for an omniscient
narrator whose observation can be relied upon. But Hawthorne s third-
person narrator (not to speak of that self-doubting autobiographical voice
that governs The Blithedale Romance and Hawthorne s sketches) is no such
reliable observer. Even the almost anonymous narrator of The Scarlet Let-
ter continually protests his inability to determine things, the inaccessibility
of the indisputable. Concerning the appearance of the letter exposed at last
to public view on the bosom of Dimmesdale, he offers the contrary theo-
ries of supposed witnesses, and says  the reader may choose  a coy eva-
sion of narrational responsibility which Hawthorne had already practiced
in such early stories as  Young Goodman Brown.
The modern reader is likely to feel at home with such indeterminism.
Hawthorne s open endings can seem to enrich our sense of the complexity
of life, its irreducibility to linear plot. But Hawthorne may have been dis-
tressed by his own reluctance to simplify. It is, of course, impossible to tell
how much his skepticism contributed to the near-surrender of his literary
vocation when, after the swift succession of publication of three of his pub-
lished long fictions between 1850 and 1853, he went into government har-
ness again. In accepting his Liverpool consulship, Hawthorne knew that he
Bell_CH1_3rd.qxd 3/11/2005 10:53 AM Page 21
Hawthorne and the Real 21
was not the kind of writer to turn books out in off hours from a grueling
job and did not publish his next work of fiction, The Marble Faun, until
1860. He seems to have found it more and more difficult to compose the
mixed form that had proved successful in his American novels. Remote
from his familiar native scene, his descriptive faculty was lavished on the
antiquities instead of the living present of Rome, and the thinness of his
characterization in the depiction of his Americans removed from their
explanatory American world, represented a failure. His late unfinished
romances were never-to-be completed efforts to achieve a vision uniting
past and present, fantasy and fact. He had kept his notebooks up, recorded
numerous observations during his travels, and made a book of his English
impressions. It is difficult to say how much failing health contributed to
something like the collapse of Hawthorne s confidence, but the war he had
dreaded yet came to see was inevitable and to which he acknowledged his
commitment, seems to have profoundly depressed him.  The Present, the
Immediate, the Actual has proved too potent for me. It takes away not only
my scanty faculty, but even my desire for imaginative composition,
Hawthorne wrote (V 4) only months before he died in 1864.
Bell_Bib_3rd.qxd 3/11/2005 11:20 AM Page 199
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Index
abolitionists: slavery: Emerson and, and, 88 93, 97, 100, 103, 106. See
47, 48, 53, 54, 67n17, 67n19; also Civil War, American
Hawthorne vs., 41 42, 43, 46, The American (James), 10
47 48, 50 51, 58, 59, 60, 64 65, American Claimant Manuscripts,
66n4, 67n17, 67n19, 160, 190; on 162 69, 179; America in, 163 68;
moral purity, 40, 41f, 56; Thoreau  The Ancestral Footstep as, 165,
and, 47, 48, 53, 61, 67n19; vio- 167; England in, 163 64, 166 68;
lence and, 46, 50 52, 53 54,  Etherege as, 165 66, 167 68, 179;
61 62, 63f, 66n10. See also Civil  Grimshawe as, 165 66, 167 68,
War, American 177, 179; Puritanism in, 163, 165
Adam and Eve, in  Ancestral Foot- American Colonization Society, 46,
step, 165 66n14
Adam Bede (Eliot), 77, 84 Americanists, Hawthorne scholars as,
Adams, Henry, 100, 185 72, 77
Adams, John Quincy, 23 American Literary Scholarship, 181
Alcott, Amos Bronson, 29, 183, 185 American Renaissance, 22, 25, 33
Alcott, Louisa May, 177 78, 183 Ammidon, Philip, 66n4
 Alice Doane s Appeal (Hawthorne),  The Ancestral Footstep
12, 55, 56, 134 36, 143n3 (Hawthorne), 162, 165, 167
allegory, 89 90; feminine, 105 6, 146, Ancients, Moderns v., 89
154; moral, 144 Anderson, Douglass, 127
 The Ambitious Guest anti-Semitism. See Jews
(Hawthorne), 143n3, 143n5 artists: as powerful over women,
America: in American Claimant 131 32, 134 36, 147; women as,
Manuscripts, 163 68; Hawthorne 102, 103, 108, 114 15, 131, 144,
on, 159 62, 164, 179 80; 146, 149, 150 53, 157n7. See also
Hawthorne s return to, 159 80; paintings; sculpture
Jacksonian, 88, 90, 92, 97; The asymmetry, social, 118 19
Scarlet Letter in literary history of, Atlantic Monthly, 160, 169, 170, 178,
viii, 70 87, 181; transnationality 179
215
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216 Index
Auden, W. H., 154 ural in, 59; politics and, 22, 30,
audience. See readers 32 33, 38, 51 52; socialism and,
Auerbach, Eric, 19 17, 32
 A Book of Autographs
Bacon, Delia, 149, 160 (Hawthorne), 195
Bacon, Francis, 149 Boston Custom House, 5, 196
Balakian, Peter, 129 Bridge, Horatio, 5, 40, 46, 66n14, 155,
Balzac, Honor� de, 1, 2, 9, 10, 19 160, 188, 189
Bancroft, George, 55 Bright, Henry, 160 61
Banks, Nathaniel, 160 Bright, John, 159
Bardes, Barbara, 112 Brodhead, Richard, 68n28, 70, 127,
Barlowe, Jamie, 112 157n6, 158n12
Barnum, P. T., 186 Brook Farm, 17, 32, 42, 109, 193
 Bartleby the Scrivener (Melville), Brooks, Preston, 24
80 Brown, Brockden, 11
Baym, Nina, viii, 81, 85, 107 24, 128, Brown, Gillian, 113
157n7 Browning, Elizabeth Barrett, 149
Bell, Lawrence, viii Brown, John, 51, 52 53, 61, 69n34,
Bell, Michael Davitt, 113 170, 186, 197
Bell, Millicent, vii ix, 1 21, 111, 127, Budick, Emily, 69n38
157nn5, 7 Buell, Lawrence, viii, 70 87, 126
Beloved (Morrison), 71, 85 Burchmore, Zachariah, 50
 Benito Cereno (Melville), 25 Burke, Edmund, 48, 49, 101
Bennoch, Francis, 65, 159, 169 Burns, Anthony, 52, 53
Bercovitch, Sacvan, 79, 84, 85, 87n6, Burns, Robert, 160
90 91, 92, 98, 105, 114, 117 Butler, Judith, 148
Berlant, Lauren, 79, 85, 87n6, 92, 94,
97, 111, 114 Calef, Robert, 55
Besant, Walter, 9 10 Calvinism, 56, 61, 90
Bigsby, Christopher, author of Hester,  The Canterbury Pilgrims
84 85 (Hawthorne), 132 33, 143n3
 The Birth-mark (Hawthorne), 41, capitalism, feminism and, 113, 114
119 Carpenter, Frederic, 81
The Blithedale Romance Catholic Church, 98, 99, 101, 151,
(Hawthorne), 5, 10, 17 18, 182; 152, 157n7
feminism/strong women in, 16, Cavour, Camillo Benso di, 98, 101
17, 32, 37 38, 39n6, 100, 113, 115,  The Celestial Roadhouse
116, 118, 119 20, 122, 124, 149, (Hawthorne), 60
153; Fuller as Zenobia in, 17, Cenci, Beatrice, 101, 151, 157n6
39n6, 52, 100, 115, 116; male rela- Centenary Edition of the Works of
tionship in, 111; mist/supernat- Nathaniel Hawthorne, 181
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Index 217
Centenary Essays (Ohio State Univer- Cushing, Caleb, 53
sity), vii
Channing, Ellery, 29 daughters: father/daughter theme
Charvat, William, 126 and, 150; Hawthorne s, 45, 68n21,
Chase, Richard, 11, 89 144, 150, 152, 153, 157n7, 160,
 Chiefly About War-Matters 187; sexuality of, 152
(Hawthorne), 42, 54, 65, 65n2, David Copperfield (Dickens), 2
170 71, 176 decapitation, metaphor of, 93
Child, Lydia Maria, 53 54 DeForest, J. W., 71 72
Choate, Rufus, 77, 78 Dekker, George, 78
Cilley, Jonathan, 5 Deluzy-Desportes, Henriette, 101
citizen/citizenship: aristocracy and, democracy, 94; French Revolution as
94; definition of, 92; linked with failure of, 93; Hawthorne on, 78;
 Terror, 93; models for good, Puritanism and, 104; revival of, 97
102; of  somewhere else, 95 Democratic Review, 5, 155
 Civil Disobedience (Thoreau), 25 Demos, John, 54
Civil War, American, 38, 160; Desalvo, Louise, 112
Hawthorne and, 15, 40, 42, 43, 53, devil imagery, 56 57, 60 62, 63 64,
65n2, 66n4, 160, 168 71, 172, 173, 69n38
176, 177 78, 179; moral purity  The Devil in Manuscript
and, 40, 41f, 56; nationalism and, (Hawthorne), 180
104; transnationalism and, 106; Dickens, Charles, 6, 141; David Cop-
violence, 46, 50 52, 53 54, 61 62, perfield, 2; The House of the Seven
63f, 66n10, 178, 183. See also abo- Gables and, 2
litionists; slavery Dickinson, Emily, 94, 196, 197
Civil War, England s, 163  The Displaced Person (O Connor),
Cleopatra (Story), 103 5 80
Colacurio, Michael, 12, 67n20, Divine Providence: in The Scarlet
69n33, 84, 110, 114, 135, 136, Letter, 16; slavery and, 50, 160
143n6  The Dolliver Romance
Compromise of 1850, 24, 27, 50, 51 (Hawthorne), 178 80
Conway, Moncure, 48, 61, 69n34 domesticity: Hawthorne s manhood
Cooper, James Fenimore, 126, 136, and, 127 28, 136, 140, 141, 144,
137 147 49, 154 56, 156n2; negative
cosmopolitanism, 100 101, 103 representations of, 129 42, 143n5,
Crews, Frederick, 49, 125, 140, 142n1, 143n7, 146 47. See also marriage,
157n7, 187 portrayal of; motherhood
Cromwell, Oliver, 56 Dos Passos, John, 181
Crowley, Donald, 128 Douglass, Frederick, 13, 22, 25, 47,
Curtis, George William, 42, 60 61, 51, 185
66n5, 183 84 Dred Scott Decision, 24
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218 Index
Dreiser, Theodore, 181 English notebooks (Hawthorne s),
Duyckinck, Evert, 155, 188 160, 161, 178
Equiano, Olaudah, 80
 Earth s Holocaust (Hawthorne), 41  Etherege (Hawthorne), 165 66,
 Edward Fane s Rosebud 167 68, 179
(Hawthorne), 143n3, 146 The Europeans (James), 80
 Edward Randolph s Portrait
(Hawthorne), 146 Fanshawe (Hawthorne), 2, 7, 126,
Edwards, Jonathan, 104 127, 130
Egan, Kenneth, 111 fantasy. See imagination
 Egotism; or, the Boston Serpent father/daughter theme, 150
(Hawthorne), 119 fatherhood, 139 40, 152, 154, 155
Elbert, Monika, 156n2 Faulkner, William, 11, 77, 82
Elijah, Lovejoy, 23  Feathertop (Hawthorne), 146 49,
Eliot, T. S., 182 156, 156n2
 Elixir of Life manuscripts felix culpa, 98
(Hawthorne), 169 80, 189, 196; feminine qualities, Hawthorne s, 139,
 Septimius Felton (Hawthorne); 141 42, 192, 193
 Septimius Norton (Hawthorne). femininity. See domesticity; women
See also Revolutionary War feminism: The Blithedale Romance
romance (Hawthorne) and, 16, 17, 32, 37 38, 39n6, 100,
Ellen, Weinauer, 113 113, 115, 116, 118, 119 20, 122,
Ellis, Bill, 53 124, 149, 153; capitalism and, 113,
Emerson, Ralph Waldo, 2, 5, 6, 11, 22, 114; female protagonists repre-
23, 29, 47, 81, 109, 159, 183, 186; senting, 16, 17, 32, 37 38, 39n6,
abolitionists and, 47, 48, 53, 54, 100, 107 24, 116; Hawthorne s,
67nn17, 19; on Hawthorne, 42, viii, 107 24; The House of the
193; Nature by, 25, 67n19;  The Seven Gables and, 113, 149; The
Poet, 105; Puritanism and, 10; on Marble Faun and, 16, 100 101,
Whitman, 129;  Woman, 102 3 116, 117, 120, 124, 144, 146,
 Endicott and the Red Cross 150 52, 153 55, 156, 157nn5, 7,
(Hawthorne), 13 158n12, 196; of Peabody sisters,
ending(s): ambiguous/open, 19 21, 15 16; Romanticism and, 109,
97; happy, 115, 116; of The Scarlet 113, 116, 118, 119; The Scarlet Let-
Letter (Hawthorne), 97, 100, 115 ter/Prynne, Hester, and, 16, 81,
enemy, demonizing of, 61 62 100, 105, 108 9, 110, 111, 112 16,
England: in American Claimant 117 18, 120 24, 149, 153; slavery
Manuscripts, 163 64, 166 68; and, 14, 15 16, 39n6; Yellin on,
Civil War in, 163; Hawthorne on, 15. See also women
159, 161 62, 179; Smithell Hall in, feminist studies, 110, 111 13
162, 177, 179 Fern, Fanny, 149
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Index 219
Fetterley, Judith, 112 Goodrich, Samuel, 126
Fields, Ann, 159, 179, 180 Gosett, Suzanne, 112
Fields, James T., 159, 179, 180; gothic motifs, 163; father/daughter,
Hawthorne writing to, 1, 165, 150; fear/horror, 130
168 69, 178; role of, 5 6, 7, 182, Grandfather s Chair (Hawthorne), 78
183, 186, 188 Gray, Thomas, 76
Flaubert, Gustav, 2, 9 Greeley, Horace, 68n30, 185
Forster, E. M., 8 Greenwood, Grace, 115, 149
France: French Revolution in, 49,  Grimshawe (Hawthorne), 165 66,
92 93, 101 2; Rome occupied by, 167 68, 177, 179
99 100, 101 Gross, Seymour, 12
Franchot, Jenny, 157n7 guilt, primal American, 4
Frederic, Harold, 71, 81, 82 Gupta, Akhil, 95
free speech: Romantics and, 23,
24 25, 39n5; slavery and, 23 29, Hale, Sarah Josepha, 115
39nn3 4  The Hall of Fantasy (Hawthorne),
Fugitive Slave Act, 13, 22, 24, 50, 160, 57
183 Harpers Ferry, raid on, 52 53, 61
Fuller, Margaret, 14, 17, 24, 35, 47, Harper s Weekly, 42
109, 139, 141, 149, 185; radicalism Hathorne, John (great-grandfather),
and, 47, 51; writing on mist, 59; as 55, 61, 62, 185
Zenobia, 17, 39n6, 52, 100, 115, Hathorne, William (great-great
116 grandfather), 185
Hawthorne and His Wife (J.
Garrison, William Lloyd, 23, 42, 47, Hawthorne), 186, 187
54, 61 62, 185 Hawthorne, Elizabeth [Ebe] (sister),
gay/queer studies, 110 11 87n5, 149
gender: of Prynne, Hester, 114; sexu- Hawthorne, Julian (son), 87n5, 109,
ality and, 103. See also men; 160, 186, 187
women Hawthorne, Nathaniel: on America,
Genesis, Book of, 38, 108. 159 62, 164, 179 80; as bio-
 The Gentle Boy (Hawthorne), 12, graphic subject, viii, 181 98; birth
139 40, 141 42, 142n2, 145 of, vii, 185; at Boston Custom
gift books, 126, 128, 136 House, 5, 196; Civil War and, 15,
Gilmore, Michael, viii, 22 39 40, 42, 43, 53, 65n2, 66n4, 160,
globalization. See transnationality 168 71, 172, 173, 176, 177 78,
God: Hawthorne on will of, 41 42, 179; contemporaries of, 29, 109,
65n2; language v., 38. See also 183, 185 86; death of, 180, 182;
Divine Providence on democracy, 78; Emerson on,
Gollin, Rita, viii 42, 193; on England, 159, 161 62,
Gongourt, Brothers, 2 179; family of, 45, 49, 55, 61, 62,
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220 Index
68n21, 78, 87n5, 96, 97, 109, 114, home of, 159 60, 169; writer s
126, 127, 144, 149, 150, 152, calling of, 192 98; writing career
154 55, 157n7, 160, 165, 166, 178, of, 126 29, 154. See also specific
179, 185, 186 87, 192; on female areas of interest; specific works
artists/writers, 102, 103, 108, Hawthorne, Rose (daughter), 45,
114 15, 131, 144, 146, 149, 68n21, 144
150 53, 157n7; feminine qualities Hawthorne, Sophia Peabody (wife),
of, 139, 141 42, 192, 193; as femi- 60, 65, 149, 157n4; demands on,
nist, viii, 107 24; finances of, 4 5, 114, 141, 154 55, 187, 190; fam-
126 29, 154 55, 157n5, 158n10, ily/childhood of, 5, 6, 15 16, 166,
160, 178, 192; free speech and, 178 79, 190, 195; Hawthorne s
25 29; on God s will, 41 42, 65n2; courtship of, 3, 49, 109, 127, 139,
illnesses of, 21, 179, 180, 194; 186 87, 190, 194
imagination of, 55 56, 59, 60, Hawthorne, Una (daughter), 150,
64 65, 68n23, 93; influences on, 2; 152, 153, 157n7, 160, 187
isolation of, 3, 5, 88, 127, 186, 191, Herbert, T. Walter, 110, 113 14, 121,
194, 196, 197; James on, 1, 8 10, 122, 157n7, 187
65, 70, 71, 72, 88, 89, 105, 184; in Hester (Bigsby), 84 85
Liverpool, 6, 21, 25, 159 60, Hibbins, Mistress, 64
161 62; as male author/manhood Higginson, Thomas Wentworth, 187
of, 126, 127 28 136, 140, 141, 144, Hillard, George, 154
147 49, 154 56, 156n2, 192 95; history: American sociopolitical, 61;
on The Marble Faun, 1; Melville historical imagination and, 96 97;
on, 10, 70, 129, 142, 143n4; in The Scarlet Letter, 6 7, 11,
mother of, 109, 126, 127; as owl- 12 13, 16, 64, 72 80, 87n6
man, 3, 5; as poet/bookkeeper, History of the Girondins (Lamartine),
193, 197; politics of, viii, 5, 17, 49
38n1, 40 46, 47 56, 58 65, 67n17, The Holder of the World (Mukherjee),
67nn19 20, 68n28, 89, 109, 160, 71, 81, 82 85, 87n7
163, 168, 183 84, 185, 192, 197;  The Hollow of the Three Hills
racism of, 40, 42, 43, 45, 46 47, (Hawthorne), 130 31, 132, 139,
100, 103; readers and, 126, 142n2, 146 47
128 29, 132, 134 42, 191; after Hosmer, Harriet, 100, 150
return to America, 159 80; Salem The House of the Seven Gables
Custom House and, 5, 92, 94, 109, (Hawthorne), 5, 120, 192; blood-
154, 165, 192, 193; on sculpture, lines/race in, 45, 189; Dickens
100, 103 4, 105; slavery/abolition- and, 2; feminism/strong women
ists and, viii, 25 29, 38, 41 42, 43, and, viii, 113, 149; mist/supernat-
46, 47 48, 50 51, 58, 59, 60, ural in, 59; politics in, 17 18, 22,
64 65, 66n4, 67n17, 67n19, 160, 30, 31, 35 36, 37, 38, 47; preface
168, 170, 183 84, 190; Wayside, to, 6, 72; reality in, 16 17, 72
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Index 221
Howells, William Dean, 181 Jones, Catherine, 79
Hutchinson, Ann, 13, 35, 104, 108,  Journal of a Solitary Man
145 (Hawthorne), 196
 The Hutchinson Mob Joyce, James, 19
(Hawthorne), 48 49
Kafka, Franz, 70
imagination: Hawthorne s, 55 56, 59, Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854, 24, 52,
60, 64 65, 68n23, 93; historical, 68nn30 31, 183
96 97; metaphors for, 94; transna- Kilcup, Karen, 111
tional, 95 96; utopianism and, 91 King Lear (Shakespeare), 76
Indians. See Native Americans Kossuth, Lajos, 52, 68n29
individualism: American self-reliant, Kurosawa, Akira, 76
98; feminization of, 113; neoclas-
sicism vs., 107; seventeenth-cen- Lamartine, Alphonse de, History of
tury liberal, 90 91 the Girondins, 49
Irving, Washington, 126, 137;  The Lander, Maria Louisa, 100, 150,
Legend of Sleepy Hollow by, 93 157n4
Italian Notebooks (Hawthorne), Lang, Amy Shrager, 112
98 100 language: action vs., 34 36; God vs.,
Italy: American expatriates in, 100; 38; slavery and, 22 23, 24 25,
French occupation of, 99 100, 26 29, 38n2
101; as metaphor, 98, 144, 153; Lawson, Reverend Deodat, 57
transnationality and, 98 103, 104 Leavis, Q. D., 12
Lee, Chang Rae, 80
Jackson, Andrew, 23, 189; America of,  The Legend of Sleepy Hollow (Irv-
88, 90, 92, 97 ing), 93
James, Henry, [Jr.], 100, 182, 183; The  Legends of Province-House
American, 10; The Europeans, 80; (Hawthorne), 146
on Hawthorne, 1, 8 10, 65, 70, 71, Leutze, Emanuel, 170
72, 88, 89, 105, 184; Hawthorne as Levernz, David, viii, 110, 111, 144 58
precursor to, 31, 71, 81; on real- Levin, Henry, author of The Power of
ism/romance, 8 10, 19 Blackness, 89
James, Henry, Sr., 183 Lewis, R. W. B., 11
Jefferson, Thomas, Notes on the State Liberator, 42, 47
of Virginia by, 62 The Life of Franklin Pierce
Jews: Jewish blood of, 150, 151; as (Hawthorne), 16, 22, 26 28, 34,
 maggots, 153 48, 50, 59, 66n4, 160
Joff�, Roland, 112 13 Lincoln, Abraham, 28, 168, 170, 185
 John Inglefield s Thanksgiving Liverpool, England, Hawthorne as
(Hawthorne), 145 U.S. Consul in, 6, 21, 25, 159 60,
Johnson, Samuel, 190 161 62
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222 Index
Lockhart, John Gibson, 77 masculinity: studies, 110 11; women
Longfellow, Henry Wadsworth, 126, as threat to, 109 10. See also man-
183, 186; friendship of, 29; hood, Hawthorne s; men
Hawthorne writing to, 3, 166; Mather, Cotton, 12, 56, 58, 62
 Paul Revere s Ride, 173; Twice- Matthiessen, F. O., 10 11, 184 85
Told Tales reviewed by, 129, 139, Maupassant, Guy de, 2
141, 142 May, Samuel, 51
Lowell, James Russell, 168 Melish, Joanne Pope, 56
Mellow, James, 129, 188
Madame Bovary (Flaubert), 2 Melville, Herman, 2, 182, 188, 198n1;
 Main-Street (Hawthorne), 56, 78  Bartleby the Scrivener, 80;  Ben-
manhood, Hawthorne s, 127 28, 136, ito Cereno, 25; on Hawthorne,
140, 141, 144, 147 49, 154 56, 10, 70, 129, 142, 143n4; Moby-
156n2, 192 95. See also masculinity Dick, 11, 25, 188; slavery and, 25,
Mann, Horace, 62 63 168, 171
Manning, Richard, 193 94 memento mori, 89
Manning, Robert, 193 men: authority of, 108; characters,
Mann, Mary Peabody, 15 16, 115, focus on, 110 11; egotism of,
196 118 20; as readers, 111; women s
 The Man of Adamant intimacy with, 118. See also gen-
(Hawthorne), 119 der; masculinity; misogyny
The Marble Faun (Hawthorne), 21, Merish, Lori, 113
47, 88, 157nn5 6, 165, 182, 189, Mexican-American War, 24, 28, 51,
190; Deluzy-Desportes, Henriette, 163
as model for, 101; Miller, Edwin Haviland, 188
feminism/strong women in, 16, Miller, Perry, 93, 108
100 101, 116, 117, 120, 124, 144, Millington, Richard, 157n7
146, 150 52, 153 55, 156, 157nn5, Milton, John, 96
7, 158n12, 196; Hawthorne on, 1; The Mind of the South (Cash), 23
as Italian romance, 98, 99,  The Minister s Black Veil
100 104, 106; preface to, 8, 15; (Hawthorne), 109, 119
reality in, 17, 20, 102; transnation- misogyny, 111 12; male fantasy in,
ality in, 98 106 108; in The Scarlet Letter, 81 82
marriage, portrayal of, 129 33, mistiness, reality vs., 58 59, 60
146 47. See also domesticity; Mitchell, Maria, 150
Hawthorne, Sophia Peabody mob scenes, 48 49, 49, 67n20, 69n23,
(wife) 166
Martin, Robert K., 111 Moby-Dick (Melville), 11, 25, 188
Marvell, Andrew: The Scarlet Letter  Moderate Views (Hawthorne), 48
and, 74 77, 85, 87n5;  The Unfor- modernity, 117; cosmopolitan, 100,
tunate Lover, 74 77 102
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Index 223
modernization, new forces of, 88, 93 Onderdonk, Todd, 113
Moderns, Ancients vs., 89 O Pioneers! (Cather), 80
Montaigne, Michel de, 19 O Sullivan, John, 5, 155, 188
moral allegory, 144  Our Hawthorne (Trilling), vii, 70,
moral purity, 40, 41f, 56 86, 87n2
moral responsibility, slavery and, Our Old Home (Hawthorne), 42,
40 65 69n40, 178, 180, 181, 182 83
Morrison, Toni, 77, 87n8; Beloved, owl-man, Hawthorne as, 3, 5
71, 85
Mosses from an Old Manse Packard, Christopher, 134
(Hawthorne), 91, 129, 142, 143n4, paintings, 100, 101, 102, 151, 157n6,
154; preface to, 4, 14; thematic 170. See also artists
change starting with, 107;  The Parker, Hershel, 182, 198n1
Old Manse in, 44, 58 Parker, Theodore, 51
motherhood, 121, 123, 130 31, 136, Parris, Reverend Samuel, 57
138 39, 140 41, 143n5. See also  Paul Revere s Ride (Longfellow),
domesticity; marriage, portrayal 173
of; women Peabody, Elizabeth, 115, 149, 186;
 Mr. Higginbotham s Catastrophe  Civil Disobedience published
(Hawthorne), 142n2, 145, 156 by, 25; feminism of, 15 16; as
 Mrs. Bullfrog (Hawthorne), 143n3, Hawthorne booster, 183, 193;
146 Hawthorne s rumored engage-
 Mrs. Hutchinson (Hawthorne), ment to, 190; on slavery, 46, 187
131, 143n3, 145, 147 Peabody, Mary. See Mann, Mary
 My Kinsman, Major Molyneux Peabody
(Hawthorne), 11 12, 48, 49, Peabody, Sophia. See Hawthorne,
143n3, 145, 166 Sophia Peabody (wife)
Person, Leland, viii, 110, 125 43
Napoleon III, 98, 99, 101 Peters, Mrs. (Hawthorne family ser-
National Hawthorne Society, vii, viii vant), 45
Native Americans, 14, 174 76, 177, Pfister, Joel, 113
189 Phillips, Wendell, 51, 62
Nature (Emerson), 25, 67n19 Pierce, Franklin, 5, 6, 25, 42, 163, 178,
Nietzsche, Friedrich, 86 183, 184, 188; campaign biogra-
Notes on the State of Virginia (Jeffer- phy of, 16, 22, 26 28, 34, 48, 50,
son), 62 59, 66n4, 160, 189 90
Pilsbury, Parker, 51
 The Old Manse. See Mosses from an Pius IX (Pope), 99
Old Manse (Hawthorne)  A Plea for John Brown (Thoreau),
Old Morality (Scott), 76 51
 Old News (Hawthorne), 4, 48, 189 Poe, Edgar Allan, 45, 148, 156n2, 194
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224 Index
 The Poet (Emerson), 105 Pue, Survey, 92, 94
political studies, 110, 113 Puritans/Puritanism, 10, 59, 69n34,
politics, 22 39; The Blithedale 185; in American Claimant Man-
Romance and, 22, 30, 32 33, 38, uscripts, 163, 165; democracy and,
51 52; Hawthorne s, viii, 5, 17, 104; Election in, 98; Hawthorne s
38n1, 40 46, 47 56, 58 65, 67nn ancestors in, 55, 61, 185, 192;
17, 19 20, 68n28, 89, 109, 160, individualism and, 90; modern
163, 168, 183 84, 185, 192, 197; in world and, 18; Puritan/tradition-
The House of the Seven Gables, alist criticism and, 110; Quakers
17 18, 22, 30, 31, 35 36, 37, 38, and, 163; in Revolutionary War
47; literature and, 31 33; Prynne, romance, 171, 173, 175; romanti-
Hester, 22, 29, 30 31, 35; The cism and, 95 96; in The Scarlet
Scarlet Letter and, 22, 26, 29 31, Letter, 13, 15, 30, 34, 36, 76, 78, 79,
33 36, 47, 48, 51, 87n6, 189; sex- 84, 85 86, 96, 108, 117, 149; sex-
ual, of Transcendentalists, 102 3; ual fascination of, 62 64; witch
transnationality and, 88 106. See hunting and, 44, 45, 55 56, 64
also abolitionists; slavery
Polk, James Knox, 27, 29 Quakers, 96, 139, 146, 163, 185
postmodernism, 19
The Power of Blackness (Levin), 89 racial issues, 189; anti-Irish, 145;
Powers, Hiram, 100, 105 Hawthorne s racism and, 40, 42,
prophecy, motif of, 34 37 43, 45, 46 47, 100, 103; in The
Protestantism, 56, 157n7 House of the Seven Gables, 45, 189;
Providence. See Divine Providence Native Americans and, 14,
Provincial Tales (Hawthorne), 12, 127 174 76, 177, 189; in sexual rela-
Prynne, Hester, 78, 191; Cleopatra tions, 62 64
resembling, 104; feminism/inde- Railton, Stephen, 128
pendence of, 14, 16, 100, 105, Ramus, Peter, 96
108 9, 110, 111, 112 16, 117 18, Ran (Kurosawa film), 76
120 24, 149, 153; gender of, 114;  Rappaccini s Daughter
grave of, 73 74, 87n4; Hawthorne (Hawthorne), 47, 119, 146
identifying with, 96 97, 107, 109, readers: Hawthorne s sense/manipu-
192; Hibbins fictionalized as, 64; lation of, 126, 128 29, 132,
individualism of, 90 91; politics 134 42, 191; male/homoerotic,
and, 22, 29, 30 31, 35; the real 111; the real and, 128, 143n6; sex-
and, 7, 14, 16; reinventions of, 81, ual provocation and, 135 36;
82 85, 87nn7 8; return by, 79. See women, 128, 131, 134 42; women
also The Scarlet Letter characters and, 126, 132, 134
psychological novel, American, 31 real ( the real ), viii, 1 21; fiction vs.,
psychological studies, 89 90, 110, 135; Prynne, Hester, and, 7, 14, 16;
113 14, 187 88 readers and, 128, 143n6; theme of,
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viii; Transcendentalists and, 2 tions of, 33 34; realism vs., 8 10,
realism: classic, 19, 20; James on, 11, 16 17, 18 19, 89; regionalism
8 10, 19; romance vs., 8 10, 11, in, 91; revisionist theory on, 73,
16 17, 18 19, 89 87n3; romantic grotesque in, 6;
r�alisme, use of term, 1 2 self-reflection in, 149; unfinished,
reality: in The House of the Seven viii, 163 79. See also specific works
Gables, 16 17, 72; male vs. female Romanticism: Calvinist, 90; femi-
illusion, 115; in The Marble Faun, nism and, 109, 113, 116, 118, 119;
17, 20, 102; mistiness vs., 58 59, free speech during era of, 23,
60 24 25, 39n5; Hawthorne s shift
Reign of Terror, 45 toward, 107; Puritanism and,
reincarnation, Hindi, 95 95 96; slavery and, 23 24
Renaissance allegorical poetry, 75 Rome. See Italy
 Resistance to Civil Government Romero, Laura, 102, 103
(Thoreau), 51 Ronald, Ann, 137
revolutionary images, 48 50, 54 55, Rossi, Count Pellegrino, 51
64, 67n20, 69n23 Rowe, John Carlos, viii, 88 106
Revolutionary War romance Rowlandson, Mary, 80
(Hawthorne), 169, 171, 173, 175.
See also  Elixir of Life manu- Salem, Massachusetts.: Choate s lec-
scripts (Hawthorne);  Septimius ture in, 77; Custom House,
Felton (Hawthorne);  Septimius Hawthorne and, 5, 92, 94, 109,
Norton (Hawthorne) 154, 165, 193, 197; in
Reynolds, David S., 143n5  Grimshawe, 165 66;
Reynolds, Larry, viii, 40 69, 102 Hawthorne s birth in, 185; past
Richardson, Philip, 161 alive in, 185; witchcraft trials, viii,
 A Rill from the Town Pump 55, 57 58, 60, 96, 135, 165, 185.
(Hawthorne), 129, 142n2 See also The Scarlet Letter
Ripley, George, 155 Sanborn, Edwin, 27
Roberts, Howard, 15 Sanders, George, 68n29
Robertson-Lorant, Laurie, 188 Santo Domingo slave revolts, 45 46,
 Roger Malvin s Burial 47, 66n10
(Hawthorne), 125 26, 129, The Scarlet Letter (Hawthorne):
136 39, 140, 142, 142n1, 143n3 ambiguity in, 19 20; in American
Rogin, Michael, 61 literary history, viii, 70 87, 181;
romance(s), 6 9, 11, 16 17, 18, 21,  Conclusion to, 97, 100, 115; crit-
33 34, 43, 77; Hawthorne s earn- ical success of, 5, 81, 126;  Custom
ings from, 154 55, 157n5, 158n10; House preface in, 5, 7 8, 13 14,
historical, 11, 89; James on real- 33, 49, 72, 73 74, 78, 79, 83,
ism and, 8 10; male vs. female 91 92, 93 95, 96, 97, 98, 100, 102,
characters in, 107, 120; opposi- 108 9, 162, 191 92, 193; Divine
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226 Index
Providence in, 16; feminist/dan- 171 78, 179, 180, 189. See also
gerous woman at center of, 4, 16,  Elixir of Life manuscripts
81, 100, 105, 108 9, 110, 111, (Hawthorne); Revolutionary War
112 16, 117 18, 120 24, 153; film romance (Hawthorne)
adaptations of, 81, 82, 112, 181; Seven Tales of My Native Land
finances during writing of, 154; (Hawthorne), 12, 127
Forster on, 8; history and, 6 7, 11, sexuality: in author/reader relation-
12 13, 16, 64, 72 80, 87n6; intro- ship, 135 36; of daughters, 152;
duction to, 5, 33; male relation- gender and, 103; middle-class dis-
ship in, 111; misogyny in, 81 82; course on, 112; public speech and,
native past in, 2; Pearl in, 123; plot 112
reinventions of, 71, 80 87, sexual politics, Transcendentalist,
87nn7 8; politics and, 22, 26, 102 3
29 31, 33 36, 47, 48, 51, 87n6, sexual relations, interracial, 62 64
189; Puritanism in, 13, 15, 30, 34,  The Shaker Bridal (Hawthorne),
36, 76, 78, 79, 84, 85 86, 96, 108, 119
117, 149; Salem Custom House in, Shakespeare, William, 149; King Lear,
5; scaffold image in, 49; 76; tragic view of, 10
Scott/Marvell and, 74 77, 85, Short, Mercy, 58
87n5; significance of, vii, 181; Silverman, Kenneth, 197
slavery and, 13, 14 16, 43, 55, 64; slavery. See also abolitionists; Civil
transnationality and, 90 95, War, American: in British West
96 98, 100, 102, 104, 105. See also Indies, 67n19; Compromise of
Prynne, Hester 1850 on, 24, 27, 50, 51; Divine
Scott, Sir Walter, 2, 10; Old Morality Providence and, 50, 160; feminism
by, 76; The Scarlet Letter and, and, 14, 15 16, 39n6; free speech
74 77, 87n5; Waverly novels by, and, 23 29, 39nn3 4; Fugitive
74 77 Slave Act on, 13, 22, 24, 50, 160,
sculpture: feminine form in, 105; 183; Hawthorne and, viii, 25 29,
Hawthorne on, 100, 103 4, 105; 38, 40 65, 65n2, 68n29, 160, 168,
by women, 102, 103. See also 170, 183 84; language and, 22 23,
artists 24 25, 26 29, 38n2; Melville and,
 A Select Party (Hawthorne), 189 25, 168, 171; moral responsibility
sentimentalism, 113 and, 40 65; Peabody, Elizabeth, on,
 Septimius Felton (Hawthorne), 46, 187; Romanticism and, 23 24;
43 45, 54, 60, 171 78, 179, 180, in Santo Domingo, 45 46, 47,
189. See also  Elixir of Life man- 66n10; The Scarlet Letter and, 13,
uscripts (Hawthorne); Revolu- 14 16, 43, 55, 64; sexual relations
tionary War romance and, 62 64; in Southhampton, 47;
(Hawthorne) spread of, 23 24; Stowe on, 46,
 Septimius Norton (Hawthorne), 66n13; witch hunting and, 55 65
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Index 227
Smithell Hall (England), 162, 177, 77, 90, 96, 109; the real and, 2;
179 sexual politics of, 102 3
Smith, Henry Nash, 11 transnationality, 88 106; America
Smith, R. McClure, 134 and, 88 93, 97, 100, 103, 106;
socialism, The Blithedale Romance Civil War and, 106; Italy and,
and, 17, 32 98 103, 104; in The Marble Faun,
Spenser, Edmund, 154 98 106; postmodern, 86; The
spheres, separate, 129, 131, 149 Scarlet Letter and, 90 95, 96 98,
Spiers, Richard, 161 100, 102, 104, 105
 The Spirit of Lodin (Thoreau), Trollop, Anthony, 1, 2
67n19 truth, fiction vs., 135
Statue of Liberty, 105 Truth, Sojourner, 61, 185
Stedman, Edmund Clarence, 189 Turgenev, Ivan Sergeyevich, 2
Stein, Gertrude, 197 Turner, Arlin, 3
Stephen, Leslie, 184 Turner, Nat, 47
The Story Teller (Hawthorne), 127 Twice-Told Tales (Hawthorne), 2,
Stowe, Harriet Beecher, 22, 185, 193; 126 42, 142n2, 143n3, 194, 195;
on slavery, 46, 66n13; Uncle Tom s reviewed by Longfellow, 129, 139,
Cabin, 46, 61, 64, 66n13, 141, 156 141, 142. See also specific stories
Sue, EugŁne, 101 Tyler, John, 62
Sumner, Charles, 24, 52, 53, 185
 Sunday at Home (Hawthorne), Uncle Tom s Cabin (Stowe), 46, 61,
129, 142n2, 189 64, 66n13, 141, 156
unconscious, psychological, 89 90
 Terror, citizenship linked with, 93  The Unfortunate Lover (Marvell),
Thackery, William, 2 74 77
Thomas, Brook, 114 Unitarians, 56
Thompson, G. Richard, 131, 143n6 United States. See America
Thoreau, Henry David, 2, 4, 11, 22, Updike, John, 77, 82, 85
29, 74, 109, 169, 182, 183, 185; Upham, Charles, 55
abolitionists and, 47, 48, 53, 61, utopianism, 90, 91
67n19;  Civil Disobedience, 25;
 A Plea for John Brown, 51; Valentine, William, 53
 Resistance to Civil Government, Vanity Fair (Thackery), 2
51;  The Spirit of Lodin, 67n19; Ventura, Mary, 135 36
Walden, 59 violence: Civil War/abolitionist, 46,
Ticknor, William, 159, 161, 168, 188 50 52, 50 54, 53 54, 61 62, 63f,
The Token (gift book), 126, 136 66n10, 178, 183; mob scene,
Tomc, Sandra, 113 48 49, 49, 67n20, 69n23, 166; rev-
Tompkins, Jane, 71, 87n2, 195 olutionary, 48 50, 54 55, 64,
Transcendentalists, 25, 47 48, 56, 59, 67n20, 69n23
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228 Index
virtues, four cardinal, 131 144 46; illusions of, vs. male real-
 The Vision of the Fountain ity, 115; intimacy between men
(Hawthorne), 128, 129, 142n2 and, 118; masculinity vs., 109 10;
outside of the home, 144 56; as
 Wakefield (Hawthorne), 119 prostitutes, 145; as readers, 128,
Walden (Thoreau), 59 131, 134 42; restricted to home,
Wallace, James D., 111 144 46; rights of, 102, 105; in
Warren, Joyce, 112 sculpture, 105; separate spheres
Waverly novels (Scott), 74 77 and, 129, 131, 149; strong, as
Wayside, home of, 159 60, 169 witches, 146 47; strong, in The
Webster, Daniel, 12 13, 78, 165 Blithedale Romance, 16, 17, 32,
Weld, Angelina Grimk�, 51 37 38, 39n6, 100, 113, 115, 116,
Whitman, Walt, 24, 129, 168, 171, 118, 119 20, 122, 124, 149, 153;
178, 182, 184, 185 strong, in The House of the Seven
Whittier, John, 185 Gables, viii, 113, 149; strong, in The
Wilkes, Charles, 3 4 Marble Faun, 16, 100 101, 116,
Williams, Roger, 13 117, 120, 124, 144, 146, 150 52,
Wineapple, Brenda, viii, 145, 157n7, 153 55, 156, 157nn5, 7, 158n12,
181 98 196; Transcendentalists on, 102 3.
witchcraft: fear of, 43; historical See also daughters; domesticity;
accounts on, 55; strong women feminism; marriage, portrayal of;
and, 146 47 misogyny; motherhood
witch hunting: Puritanism and, 44, Woodberry, George, 184
45, 55 56, 64; slavery and, 55 65; Woolf, Virginia, 19
trials (Salem), viii, 55, 57 58, 60, Wright, Henry, 51
96, 135, 165, 185 Wright, Nathalia, 101
 The Wives of the Dead Wyatt-Brown, Bertram, 62
(Hawthorne), 132
 Woman (Emerson), 102 3 Yeats, William Butler, 154
womanhood, cult of true, 131 Yellin, Jean Fagan, 15, 112
women, 107 24; artists as powerful  Young Goodman Brown
over, 131 32, 134 36, 147; as (Hawthorne), 132, 143n3; devil
artists/writers, 102, 103, 108, in, 56 57, 60 61, 63 64, 69n38;
114 15, 131, 144, 146, 149, 150 53, male motifs in, 109, 119; narrator
157n7; as creative doubles, 144 56; in, 20; parenting in, 139, 143n5
criminals, 143n5; as dark vs. fair
ladies, 108; as domestic angels, Zola, Emile, 2, 9, 10


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