THDL Tibetan Reference Grammar
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Table of Contents
THDL Tibetan Reference Grammar
Overview
Verbs and Verb Phrases
Nouns
Introduction
Pre-nominal Modifiers
Adjectives
Determinatives
Case
Nominalizers
Postpositions and Postpositional Phrases
Adjectives and adjectival phrases
Adverbs and adverbial phrases
Clauses and sentences: propositions
Speech acts and types of sentences
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THDL Tibetan Reference Grammar
Section 3 of 8
THDL Tibetan Reference Grammar
Distributed under the THDL Digital Text License.
by Nicolas Tournadre (October 1, 2003)
Nouns
Introduction
Common nouns
Gender
(MST 2.3.3) Grammatical gender (masculine, feminine, neuter) does not exist in Tibetan.
Articles, demonstratives, adjectives and verbs are therefore invariable with respect to gender. Male
and female sex are, however, sometimes marked within the lexicon (by distinct words) or else by
means of suf xes (
" " or " " " for the male and " " or " " " for the female) in the case of certain pronouns
and substantives denoting animate beings.
" " " " yak (male), " " " " " yak-cow, " " " horse (generic), " " " " " " " " " mare, " " " boy, " " " " " " " "
girl, " " " " " " " " man from Kham, " " " " " " " " " woman from Kham, " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " yogin, " " " " " "
" " " " " " " " " " yogini, " " " " yak/cow hybrid, " " " " " " " " " female dzo
N.B.: some pronouns make no distinction between he and she : " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " He/she is
rich.
Pronouns
Personal pronouns
(MST 3.3.1) There are three registers of personal pronouns: ordinary, honori c and high honori c. In
Literary Tibetan, as well as in some dialects (Tsang), a humili c form (
" " " " ) is used for the rst person.
This form is not used in Standard Spoken Tibetan.
In Literary Tibetan and in certain dialects (including Kham and Mustang), there are distinct forms for
the exclusive and inclusive rst person plural. This opposition, too, is absent in Standard Tibetan.
For the second person, it is safest to use the honori c form
" " " " " " " " " " / " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " ; for the third
person, " " " " / " " " " " " " " " . The ordinary forms " " " you, " " " he, " " " " " " " " he and " " " or " " " " " " " "
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she imply familiarity. The forms " " " " " and " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " you carry pejorative connotations in
Standard Tibetan, whereas they are the normal terms in Literary Tibetan and certain dialects (Kham,
Hor, Amdo).
In Standard Tibetan and many other dialects, as well as in Literary Tibetan, there is a special dual form
for both personal pronouns and demonstratives: " " " " " " " " " we two, " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " you two,
" " " " " " " " " " the two of them " " " " " " " " " " those two.
(MST 12.3.5) The number " " " " " one has several meanings. We have already come across (in MST
10) the pronominal use of " " " " " . It means both someone and something. On the other hand, in
certain contexts, " " " " " means once or a little.
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " Someone came here.
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " Lend me a little money.
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " I m going to have a bit of a quarrel with him.
Interrogative
(MST 16.3.2) Tibetan has several expressions that mean why : " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " , " " " " " " " " " " " " " " "
" " " .
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " He s afraid; why?
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " My leg s hurting; (I wonder) why?
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " Why are you crying?
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " Why did you throw stones?
There is also the formulation: V+ " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " or V+ " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " . It may
be translated as What do you mean by + gerundive. It often gures in reproaches:
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " Why did you break the cup?
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" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " Why did you throw stones?
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " Why didn t you do any work?
Pre-nominal Modifiers
Special Cases: Adjectives in Focus
Adjectives
Determinatives
Numerals
The cardinal and ordinal numbers
(MST 7.3.4) Numbers come after the noun. Unlike Burmese, Chinese, and several other Asian
languages, Tibetan has no classi ers.
" " " (20) " " " (30) " " " (40) " " (50) " " " (60) " " " " (70) " " " (80) " " " (90)
Remembering these particles is made easier by the fact that, with the exception of " " " , they are all
derived from the term for the set of ten in question. For example, " " " , the particle for the thirties, is
derived from " " " " " three. The same is true of the forties, where " " " is a modi cation of
" " " " four,
and so on.
" " " " " " " " " " 20
through
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " 21 " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " 29
" " " " " " " " " " " 30
through
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " 31 " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " 39
" " " " " " " " " " " " 40
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through
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " 41 " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " 49
" " " " " " " " " " " 50
through
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " 51 " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " 59
" " " " " " " " " " " " " 60
through
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " 61 " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " 69
" " " " " " " " " " " " " 70
through
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " 71 " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " 79
" " " " " " " " " " " " " 80
through
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " 81 " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " 89
" " " " " " " " " " " " 90
through
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " 91 " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " 99
" " " " " hundred : " " " " " " " " " " " one hundred, " " " " " " " " " " " two hundred, " " " " " " " " " " " three
hundred.
Between 100 and 199, the number hundred is followed by the connective " " " and. [37] For
example: " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " 150.
" " " " " thousand : " " " " " " " " " " " one thousand, " " " " " " " " " " " two thousand, " " " " " " " " " " " three
thousand.
" " " " ten thousand : " " " " " " " " " " one myriad, " " " " " " " " " " twenty thousand (two myriad), " " " " " "
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" " " " thirty thousand.
" " " " " hundred thousand : " " " " " " " " " " " one (unit of a) hundred thousand, " " " " " " " " " " " two hundred
thousand, " " " " " " " " " " " three hundred thousand.
After million, the numbers are treated as substantives and must be followed (not preceded) by the
number of units.
" " " " " " million : " " " " " " " " " " " " " one million, " " " " " " " " " " " " " two million, etc.
" " " " " " " " ten million : " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " (one unit of) ten million, " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " twenty million,
etc.
" " " " " " " " " " " hundred million : " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " one (unit of a) hundred million, " " " " " " " " " " " " "
" " " " " two hundred million, " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " one billion.
From a hundred up to a hundred thousand, units may be placed afterwards, and the number is
therefore treated syntactically as a substantive. In the case of thousand, the suf x" " " " is added:
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " two thousand, " " " " " " " " " " " thirty thousand, " " " " " " " " " " " " three hundred
thousand.
From one hundred up, when there is a zero in the tens, hundreds or any higher column, as in 108 or
1015, the column name (10, 100, etc.) is followed by " " " " without. This expression is optional: " " " " " "
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " 1407, " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " 1016.
Note: The numbers 1, 2, 3 and 10 are spelled differently according to the other numbers with which
they are combined, as in the case of 15 (10+5), 18 (10+8), 20 (2x10), 30 (3x10), etc. The written
variants represent a formalization, from the classical period, of different pronunciations of the numbers
in question.
" " " " > " " " " in " " " " " " " " " 15 and " " " " " " " " " " " " 18
" " " " > " " in " " " " " " " " 20
" " " " > " " " in " " " " " " " " " 30 and in " " " " " " " " " " 60, etc.
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" " " " " > " " " " in " " " " " " " " " " " 1000
" " " " " > " " " in " " " " " " " " 20
" " " " " > " " " " in " " " " " " " " " " " 2000
" " " " " > " " " " in " " " " " " " " " 30
Note that round tens and hundreds may be followed by " " " " " " " . For example: " " " " " " " " " " " " " " a
hundred, " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " thirty.
Ordinal numbers present no dif culties. With the exception of rst, which has a special radical, they
are formed simply by adding the suf x" " . For example: " " " " " " " " rst, " " " " " " " " " second, " " " " " " "
" " third, " " " " " " " " tenth, " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " eleventh, etc.
The percentages and fractions are formed by using the word " " part. Thus:
One hundred percent " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " 100%
Fifty percent " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " 50%
One third " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " 1/3
Three quarters " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " 3/4
Demonstratives
Proximal/medial/distal
(MST 1.3.3) The demonstratives function both as adjectives and as pronouns. As adjectives, they
always come after the noun (or after the noun phrase), and carry a case or plural marker as
appropriate.
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " What is this? ( This is what? )
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " What is this paper?
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " What are these papers?
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The demonstratives " " " " (proximal), " " " (medial) and " " " " " " " (distal) denote three degrees of
removal: nearby, distant and far-off, corresponding to the English expressions here, there and over
there.
The demonstratives " " " " , " " " and " " " " " " " function as pronouns and adjectives. When used as
adjectives, demonstratives always come after the noun (or after the noun phrase); they are given a
case particle and, where appropriate, a plural particle.
The demonstratives " " " " and " " " are employed not only to draw attention to something/ point out/
show something (deictic function), but also to refer to elements previously mentioned (anaphoric
function) in a text or conversation. The expression " " " " " " " , however, is used only to indicate spatial
distance.
The demonstrative " " " " is linked to the present moment; " " " , on the other hand, is associated with
the past or the future, and with the notions of the beyond and the invisible.
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " I said that
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " I ll say this
" " " " " " " " " this year (present)
" " " " " " " " that year (past or future)
" " " " " " " " " " this book
" " " " " " " " " that book
" " " " " " " " " " " " " that book over there
The demonstratives " " " " , " " " , and " " " " " " " are used to form the adverbs " " " " " , " " " " , and " " " " " " " "
here, there, and over there. In the spoken language they have undergone a small variation in their
pronunciation " " " " " " (" " " " " ), " " " " " " " " (" " " " " " " " ).
Singular/dual/plural
Quantifiers
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Number and the plural marker " " "
(MST 2.3.2) Number is never marked in verbs, adjectives or the majority of nouns. Plurality is usually
implied either by context, or by quanti ers such as
" " " " " " " " many, " " " " " " " all, " " " " " " " some,
certain, " " " " " two, etc.
However, there is a plural marker " " " , [38] which appears with demonstratives and personal pronouns:
" " " " " " " " " these, " " " " " " " " those, " " " " " " " those, those over there, " " " " " " " " " they, etc.
The marker " " " by itself is used with nouns denoting people only when the people in question are
speci ed/de ned:
" " " " " " " " " " " the mothers, " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " the teachers, " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " "
the students, etc. (but not *mothers, *teachers, etc.). The non-speci c plural is not marked with the
plural particle: " " " " " " mothers, " " " " " " " " " " teachers.
This suf x is not used with animals or inanimate objects: *
" " " " " " " " " [the] sheep, *" " " " " " " " " " " " " "
[the] tables, *" " " " " " " " " " " " [the] thangkas.
Consequently, unambiguous renderings of the plural/indications of plurality require the use of
demonstratives: " " " " " " " " " " " " " " those sheep, " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " those tables.
Number is only marked once per noun or noun phrase; the marker, which is placed at the end of the
group, is therefore never redundant.
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " those little girls
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " those high snow-mountains
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " the young mothers
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " the other companions
N.B.: the following demonstratives also occur in conversation:
" " " " " " " " " " these (nearby), " " " " " " " " " those (distant)
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " all these, " " " " " " " " " " " " " " all those
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These last two expressions are used to make a selection from a group.
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " all these books (and not the others)
The singular indefinite article " " " "
(MST 6.3.1) The article is not generally used in Tibetan.
For example, according to the context or the situation, " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " may mean Have you
got a/ the/ any pen(s)?
However, this statement ought to be slightly modi ed: rst, as we saw earlier, the use of the plural
marker " " " implies that the (human) noun so quali ed is de nite, and that it should be preceded in the
English translation by the use of the (plural) de nite article the. Secondly, Tibetan does indeed have
a singular inde nite article
" " " " that is placed after the noun, but that is used only when the noun is
speci c:
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " a (certain) teacher, " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " a (certain) student
but not when the noun is generic:
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " he is a teacher, but " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " He s one (of
the) teacher(s)
The form of the inde nite article
" " " " a should not be confused with that of the cardinal number
one " " " " " , although the pronunciation of the two is the same. In Literary Tibetan, the inde nite article
has three variants " " " " , " " " " , " " " " depending on the nal letter of the preceding word.
after " , " , " , and the " " " " " " " " > " " " "
after vowels and " , " , " , " , " , " > " " " "
after >" " " "
In the spoken language, only the form " " " " is used.
Finally, the demonstrative " " " is often used in much the same way as a (speci c) de nite article in the
European languages.
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" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " Where is that/ the new book?
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " He s the brother of Lobzang.
Case
General remarks on cases
(MST 4.3.1) Both the spoken and literary languages contain case-marking particles that specify the
function of a noun within a sentence.
There are six cases: the absolutive (unmarked), the agentive " " " " , the genitive " " " , the oblique " " ,
the ablative " " " and the associative " " " . The following lessons will discuss each one in turn.
In English, these cases are represented by prepositions such as to, of, in, by, or for, or else are
not translated at all.
The system of cases in Tibetan is quite distinct from that of European languages such as Latin, Greek,
German and Russian, for a number of reasons:
First of all, contrary to the case of these languages, the noun remains invariable. [39] Instead, it makes
use of particles or suf xes that vary in form
. Some case suf xes, for example, vary according to the
nal letter (or sound) of the preceding word.
Literary Tibetan and to a lesser extend the spoken language show some features of agglutinative
morphology. That is, the case suf xes and the other grammatical suf xes are added on in a series. For
example, the plural marker is marked by a suf x distinct from the case (unlike the cases in Latin or
Russian). In the following sentences in Literary Tibetan, the head nouns " " " " body and " " " " " " " "
learned are followed by three suf xes including a plural marker and then a case marker (genitive or
agentive):
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " "
learned-plural-agentive-additive negation see Even the learned ones have not
(H) seen (it).
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " "
body-possession suf x-plural- karma The karma of those who have a
genitive body&
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Cases have a range of functions that are not con ned to the noun, but
also relate to the verb. Thus all
case markers have two basic functions: a case-related function and a connective function. [40] The
latter is comparable to a coordinating or subordinating conjunction in European languages. (See the
discussion on the ablative case in MST 9.)
The following are the main case-related and connective functions:
" " " " , the agentive, traditionally referred to as " " " " " " " " " " " , literally agent-sound, indicates the agent
of the action ( by ), the instrument ( with ), the cause ( because of, by ), and the manner ( with ); it
also marks causal subordinate clauses, in which case it may be translated by since, because, etc.
" " " , the genitive, traditionally referred to as " " " " " " " " " " " " , literally link-sound, designates the
complement of the noun, and is translated by of ; it may also correspond to the conjunction but (L).
" " , the oblique, (or dative-locative), traditionally referred to as " " " " " " " " , literally meaning of to ,
indicates the person or goal to which an action is directed, as well as place and direction, and
corresponds to the English prepositions to or at ; it may also mark a subordinate purpose clause, in
which case it is translatable by to or in order to.
Ø, the absolutive, traditionally referred to as " " " " " " " " " " " " " , literally just the essence, or the
meaning in essence, is the unmarked case. It denotes the patient, i.e., the person or thing that
undergoes the action (in the case of transitive verbs), and the single participant (in the case of
intransitive verbs).
" " " , the ablative, traditionally referred to as " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " , literally sound of the
source, indicates provenance ( from ); it also marks causal or temporal subordinate clauses, in which
case it may be translated by because or after, or simply by and. Another ablative marker " " " is
also used in Literary Tibetan. However, this form is restricted to the use of comparative marker in the
spoken language.
" " " , the associative, traditionally referred to as " " " " " " " " " , [41] literally sound of with , has the sense
of with, against or from ; it may also mean simply and, and may function as a temporal
connective meaning as soon as (literary).
There is no agreement on the basis of function within a noun group: the case appears just once, at the
end of the noun phrase, and there is consequently no redundancy.
For example, if the noun is not followed by any quali cation such as adjectives, demonstratives and so
forth, the case particle is suf xed directly:
" " " " " " " " " " " by the leader (agentive)
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" " " " " " " " " " " " " " to the leader (dative)
But if the noun is quali ed, the nal element of the noun group is followed by a case particle:
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " by these two great leaders
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " to these two great leaders
The case may be omitted in the literary language (mainly in order to preserve the metre in poetic
writing) as well as in the spoken language, in circumstances that will be discussed below.
The absolutive
(MST 4.3.3) The absolutive is marked by the absence of any overt case particle: it is morphologically
void. [42] Because it lacks a formal mark, the absolutive in Tibetan isn t always easy to identify at rst.
Remember that a case marker is always to be found at the end of any noun group (or phrase).
The absolutive indicates the grammatical role of patient. This role typically refers to the animate or
inanimate participant that undergoes or suffers a given action performed by an agent (in the case of
transitive verbs), [43] or a single participant in a process (in the case of intransitive verbs).
In syntactic or relational terms, it designates both the object of a transitive verb and the subject of an
intransitive verb.
" " " " " " " " " " Drink the tea, " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " The tea is hot
In both these examples, the tea (" " ) is in the absolutive case. However, in the rst sentence it is a
direct object, while in the second it is the subject of the verb. By contrast, the subject of a transitive
verb is marked by the agentive case (see MST 8).
The agentive (" " " " )
(MST 8.3.2) Traditional grammars refer to this mark as " " " " " " " " " " " (lit. agent-sound). The agentive is
formed by adding an " to the genitive. The variants follow the same pattern as in the case of the
genitive: " " " " , " " " " " , " " " " " , " .
after vowels and " > " "
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after " , " > " " " "
after " , " , " and the " " " " " " " " > " " " " "
after " , " , " , " > " " " " "
In Classical Tibetan, vowels may also be followed by the variant " " " " , or even by the more archaic
form " " " " .
In conversation, the three particles " " " " , " " " " " , " " " " " are pronounced in exactly the same way, as an
unstressed syllable: /-ki'/. Remember that adding the variant " produces a glottal stop (or a modulated
tone) in the pronunciation, and that in the case of /a, u, o/, an umlaut is effectively added: a+s > / '/, u
+s > / '/, o+s > / '/. The vowels /e, i/ do not change: e+s > /e'/, i+s > /i'/.
" " " " " " " sun > " " " " " " " "
" " " " " " " " drawing > " " " " " " " " "
" " " water > " " " "
" " " man, person > " " " "
" " " re >" " " "
" " " " arrow > " " " "
" " " " " " " " " " teacher > " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " "
" " " " " " " " " " teacher (H) > " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " "
" " " " " " " " " " " secretary > " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " "
Functions
(MST 8.3.2) The agentive particle has two case-related functions: the ergative and the instrumental:
[44] The ergative function is used to mark the grammatical role of agent. In transitive clauses, this role
typically matches the semantic agent or causer who performs an action on a patient, but also includes
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the agent of mental and verbal actions and the perceiver of a sensation. However, it does not refer
to the experiencer of an emotion, which is marked as the patient (the absolutive or zero case). In
syntactic or relational terms, the agentive particle generally marks the subject of transitive verbs
governing an ergative construction. Most transitive verbs require an ergative construction but some
non-volitional transitive verbs require other constructions (affective or possessive, see MST 9.3).
(MST 8.3.2) Ergative constructions may seem strange at rst, to the extent that they work in the
opposite way to accusative constructions in European languages. However, even though ergative-
absolutive constructions are not familiar to speakers of European languages, they are as logical as
accusative constructions. As discussed in Chapter 4, the main point is that all languages need a
mechanism or device to distinguish who does what to whom, or, in other words, to distinguish
between the Subject and the Object of a transitive verb. In nominative-accusative European
languages, as well as in Chinese, it is not the subject that is marked, but the object, either by using a
distinct accusative case marker (as in Latin and Russian), or by opposition in the sentence, i.e., being
placed after the verb (as in French, English and Chinese) [45] . In English, for example, word order is
used to distinguish between the policeman killed the fugitive and the fugitive killed the policeman.
Tibetan chooses to mark not the object, but the transitive subject, by using a distinct case marker the
ergative. It is called " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " main ergative in the traditional grammars.
A subject that is marked by the ergative is almost always a human or other animate. The object lacks
an overt formal marker (Ø); in linguistic terminology this is knows as the absolutive, and in traditional
Tibetan grammars as " " " " " " " " " " " " " , just (the word) in the absolute.
Here are some examples:
S (erg.) O (abs.) V (ergative construction)
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " "
I + Erg. book + Abs. read-past I read the book.
In Basque, the only ergative language of Europe, the structure is similar:
S (erg.) O (abs.) V
ni-k liburu-a-Ø irakurri d-u-t
I + Erg. Book-def + Abs. Read Abs-Aux-Erg
Other examples:
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " "
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lama + Erg. tea (H) + Abs. drink (H)-past The lama drank the tea.
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " "
Tsering + Erg. horse + Abs. buy-past Tsering bought the horse.
Verbs that take the ergative construction will be identi ed as: E(rgative) A(bsolutive).
" " " to buy [vol., EA]
It should be noted that there is also an indirect ergative in which the subject is in the ergative and the
object in the dative (indirect object).
S (erg.) O (dat.) V (mixed construction)
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " "
Tsering + Erg. horse+Dat. look-past Tsering looked at the horse.
Verbs governing this type of construction will be identi ed as: E(rgative) D(ative).
" " " to look (at) [vol., ED]
This construction appears mainly with compound verbs (which usually have three syllables), such as
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " to be interested (in), " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " to be careful (of), " " " " " " " " " " " " " to
make a phone call (to), " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " to have faith (in).
The ergative also appears with verbs involving three participants (ditransitive):
S (erg.) O indirect (dat.) O (abs.) V
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " "
we + Erg. he + Dat. book a + Abs. give (h)-past We gave him a book.
Verbs that take this type of construction will be noted as: E(rgative) D(ative) A(bsolutive).
" " " " to offer [vol., EDA]
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In exceptional cases, the ergative may also be used to mark the agent of volitional intransitive verbs,
especially verbs of movement (see MST 27). The effect of the ergative in this case is to emphasize the
agent or his/her volition.
(MST 8.3.2) The instrumental is used to convey three main meanings: the instrument or implement;
the manner; and the cause. It may be used either with an agent (explicit or implicit) or without one.
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " These medicines are made with
medicinal herbs.
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " He drew this picture with chalk.
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " The shepherd hit the dog with a stick.
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " He got better thanks to the medicine.
The ablative (" " " )
(MST 9.3.2) This invariable case-particle indicates spatial or temporal provenance.
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " from Lhasa to Chamdo
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " from three to ve o clock
N.B.: The ablative is often associated with verbs indicating acquisition, such as " " " " " " to nd, " " " to
buy, " " " " to obtain, " " " " to borrow, " " " to get, nd, and verbs of movement such as" " " " " to
go.
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " bought from the market
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " I found it on [lit. from] the road
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " go through [lit. from] here
When it follows an animate being, the ablative may also assume the role of the ergative, and thus
becomes a marker for the agent of the action. Used in this way, it is the same as the agentive case.
While this usage is common in Literary Tibetan, it is rare in the spoken language.
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" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " Rinpoche [46] gave a teaching.
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " What (lit. how much) salary
does the government give him?
The particle " " " may be used in the composition of postpositions and adverbs.
" " " " " " " " " adverbalizer, in an X way
" " " " " " " " " adverbalizer in an X way
" " " " " " " " " " absolutely (not)
" " " " " " " " " " " " absolutely (not), etc.
As in the other cases, the particle " " " may function as a subordinating conjunction. When used in this
way it means after, then, because, or it may be used to form gerundives (see MST 14.4).
The associative (" " " )
(MST 9.3.3) This particle, which we have met earlier, is used mainly as a coordinating conjunction (or
connective) meaning and ; however, it also corresponds to a case, the associative, which is generally
translated as with or against, or else is not translated at all. In the spoken language, this case-
related function is little used (for the literary language, see section 3.3 in Appendix 1).
Contrary to normal practice in the European languages and in Chinese, Tibetan inserts a pause (when
one is required) after, not before, the conjunction. In fact, the particle " " " is often followed by a
punctuation mark, the " " " " " " " " " , which indicates a pause.
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " father, uncle, and aunt
To reproduce the Tibetan rhythm, we would have to say: the father and& the uncle and& the aunt.
The conjunction " " " is distributive with respect to case and number. This means that the noun group
which precedes it has no number or case marker: these markers appear only once, at the end of the
whole group. Thus in the following examples, the plural marker appears only once.
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" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " the mother and the children (Tibetan would not say: *" " " " " " " "
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " )
In the following examples, the case marker appears only once:
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " (They) gave presents to the boys
and (to the) girls.
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " Tsering and Lobzang drank
some alcohol.
In the spoken language, the associative case applies to a very limited number of verbs. Furthermore, it
may sometimes be replaced by other cases such as the absolutive or the oblique. Here are some
verbs that still take this case in oral usage:
" " " " " " " " " " to get on with, " " " " to break (a law), " " " " " to exchange (for), " " " " to mistake (for),
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " to separate (from), and certain adverbial constructions: " " " " " " " " " with, etc.
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " I exchange it for tsampa.
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " Tsering gets on well with Lobzang.
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " I m going to separate from her.
The genitive (" " " )
(MST 4.3.2) Traditional grammars refer to this marker as " " " " " " " " " " " " (lit. link sound, relation sound),
and it is commonly translated in English as of.
The genitive has several variant forms depending on the nal letter of the preceding word. These
variants are: " " " , " " " " , " " " " , " " "
after a vowel and " " > " " "
after " " , " " > " " "
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after " " , " " , " " , and the " " " " " " " " > " " " "
after " " , " " , " " , " " > " " " "
In Classical Tibetan, vowels and the letter " " may be followed by the variant " " " ; this is especially true
in poetry, to suit the requirements of the meter.
The genitive is used not only to form noun complements, possessive pronouns and adjectives, but
also relative clauses. In this case, it may be translated by a relative pronoun such as that, who,
where, etc. The complement that is marked by the genitive always precedes the noun to which it
refers.
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " my friend (lit. the friend of me )
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " his pen (lit.: the pen of him)
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " Tashi s son
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " the lama s disciple
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " government civil servant
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " the teacher s book
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " the photo that s in the book
The oblique (" " )
(MST 5.3.1) The oblique particle " " has two main case-related functions: as the locative and as the
dative. In Spoken Tibetan there are two variants, [47] one of which depends on the nal letter of the
preceding word. These markers are: " " , " " :
After vowels or " " > " "
After all endings (consonants or vowels) > " "
In the conversational register, the particle " " is sometimes pronounced " " " " " " or even " " . Note also
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that the variant " " is rarely used with monosyllabic words for the dative (except in the case of
personal pronouns, as well as demonstrative and interrogative adjectives).
Thus " " " " " " " to the mountain is used in preference to " " " " , and " " " " " " " to the boy in preference
to " " " " .
Locative Function
(MST 5.3.1) The locative is used to mark complements of place (with or without movement) or time
(date, time), and is generally translated by English at, to, in or on.
" " " " " " " " " " " " " to/ in Ladakh
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " to/ in America
" " " " " " " " " " " " " to/ in India
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " at two o clock
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " on the fth [of the month]
" " " " " " " " " " in winter
Dative Function
(MST 5.3.1) The dative is used to indicate the grammatical role of goal, i.e., the person or thing to
which the action is directed, or the owner of something in possessive constructions. This particle
corresponds to English to, or else is not translated at all. It is also used to form adverbs.
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " He sent a letter to Lobzang.
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " He has money.
" " " " " " " " " clear > " " " " " " " " " " clearly
As we have just seen, possessive constructions in Tibetan are formed with the dative: Subject (dat.) +
Object (abs.) + Verb. This structure follows the pattern: [to X there is Y], and may be translated literally
as to him there is money. [48] It has exactly the same form as constructions of existence.
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Thus the sentence " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " may mean both There are books at the school
and The school has books.
N.B.: Be careful not to confuse this construction with the genitive: " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " There
are (some of) the school s books.
Nominalizers
Overview
Nominalizing suf xes
(MST 11.3.2) In Tibetan, any verb may be followed by a nominalizing suf x (or nominalizer ).
Nominalization converts a verb or even an entire clause into a noun (or rather a noun phrase). It is an
important and complex feature of Tibetan grammar.
The most common suf xes are:
" " , " " " " " , " " " " , " " , " " " " " , " " " " , " " " " " , " " " (*L), and " " " " " " (*L) [49] .
Most of these suf xes are used for three main purposes:
1. They form nominal clauses [50] functioning like any noun phrase as subject, object, complement,
etc. The nominalized verb (or the proposition) becomes the head of the noun phrase: i.e., it operates
as a noun and may be followed by a demonstrative and a case marker like any other noun (see MST
11.3.3 and MST 18, 20, 25, 40).
2. They form relative clauses [51] functioning as modi ers of noun phrases like an adjective (see MST
26).
3. Finally, it may be noted that most of these nominalizers may combine with nal auxiliary verbs to
form ectional endings
: " " " " " " " " (see MST 7.3.2), " " " " " " " " " " (see MST 20.3.1), " " " " " " " " " " " and
" " " " " " " " " (see MST 28.3.1), etc.
Relative clauses and nominalization
Relative clauses
(MST 26.3.1) As a general rule, we can agree with the observation by the linguist mile Benv niste
that however [a relative clause] may be attached to its head noun [& ] it acts like a determinate
syntactic adjective .
Tibetan forms relative clauses by nominalizing the verb. Thus, instead of relative pronouns such as we
use in English, Tibetan uses nominalizers (see MST 11, 18, 20 and 25) that follow the verb of the
relative clause. Relative clauses are formed by using the following nominalizers: " " , [52] " " " , " " " " " ,
" " " " , " " .
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The construction of relative clauses is a rather complicated matter in Standard Tibetan grammar,
insofar as the nominalizer that is used depends not only on the function of the head noun with respect
to the verb of the relative clause (subject, object, indirect object, instrument, etc.), but also on the
tense and, in some cases, even the class of the verb. [53]
The following table offers a summary of the uses of nominalizers that operate as relative pronouns.
Relative pronouns
[SN + SV + nominalizer + genitive] + head noun + dem.
Structure of following relative clause:
[SN] + head noun + [SV+ nominalizer] + dem.
Examples of preceding relative clauses:
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " Where s the
new shirt that you bought?
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " Those mountains that are
famous are in Tibet.
Examples of following relative clauses:
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " Where s the
new shirt that you bought?
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " Those mountains that are
famous are in Tibet.
Following relative clauses are also referred to as head-internal, because the head noun appears
inside the clause. If the verb comes after the head noun (in the example cited above, " " " " , to buy,
comes after the head noun " " " " " " " " " " " shirt ), the latter can precede the subject of the relative
clause, and the head noun is embedded within the relative clause (as in the example " " " " " " " " " " " "
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " where " " " " " " " " " " " shirt is
preceded by the subject " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " you, which belongs to the relative, not the main, clause,
where is the new shirt? ).
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It should be noted that in most cases the verb in the relative clause stands by itself, without an
auxiliary, followed by the nominalizer. In certain rare instances, however, auxiliaries may be used to
indicate the tense-aspect of the relative clause, in which case they must be followed by the
nominalizer " " .
V + " " " " " " " " " present progressive
V + " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " present progressive
V + " " " " " " " " perfect
Below are some illustrations of the different functions of the head noun. The nominalizers have been
selected in accordance with the rules laid out above in the table.
1. Subject (intransitive): who, which
In this case the nominalizer depends on the tense-aspect. For the present, the future and the
imperfective past, the nominalizer " " " " is used, whereas for the perfective, it is the form " " that is
used.
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " Who is the teacher who
is going abroad?
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " Who is the teacher who went
abroad?
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " Who is the
teacher who went abroad at that time?
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " Those are carpets that have been
produced in [lit. have come out of] Tibet.
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " Who is the teacher who
will be going to Tibet?
2. Subject (transitive): who, which
The subject of a transitive verb can always be marked by the nominalizer " " " " irrespective of the
tense-aspect. However, in the case of benefactive verbs in the past tense, the nominalizer " " is
usually used.
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" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " Nomads who are literate are
few.
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " Do
you know the Khampa who played the lute yesterday?
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " "
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " The student who took rst place in the competition is from the same
village as I am.
3. Direct object: whom, that, which
In this case the nominalizer depends on the tense-aspect. For the present, the future and the
imperfective, the nominalizer " " " is used, whereas the perfective past uses the nominalizer " " .
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " The food that you
have made is very good.
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " The horse
that he is riding is very fast.
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " The book
that I m reading now is very interesting.
4. Adverbial complement of tense when
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " (" " " " " " " " " )" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " I remember the day when he
came.
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " The time at which he is to
come hasn t been con rmed.
5. Indirect object (in the dative) and adverbials of place: to whom, to which, that, where.
With adverbs of place, the tense-aspect of the relative clause may be speci ed.
" " is used to indicate
the present, future and imperfective past (the imperfect ), whereas " " is used for the perfective past.
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On the other hand, this distinction is not usually made with indirect objects or goals, and only the
nominalizer " " is used, irrespective of the tense-aspect.
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " Where is the trunk where the
clothes are kept?
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " Where is the trunk where the
clothes were put?
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " Bring
the table on which the television was placed.
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " Bring the table
on which the television is kept.
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " "
The restaurant where we used to go before doesn t exist any more.
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " The girl he loved is already
married.
6. Instrument, cause and purpose: with which, for which.
In order to situate a head noun in an instrumental, causal or purpose clause, the nominalizer " " is
used irrespective of the tense-aspect. It should be noted that the head noun is marked in the same
way whether it is a direct object or an instrument (or cause, etc.). The head noun may be taken as an
instrument only if the verb is preceded by the direct object. Compare the following:
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " Who bought the meat that I m
cutting?
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " The knife for cutting meat isn t
sharp.
The following examples illustrate the instrumental and causal functions:
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " Where s the cloth for wiping the
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blackboard?
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " This is the reason why
we re holding a meeting.
When the head noun of the relative clause denotes the substance of which the object is made, " " "
may be replaced by the nominalizer " " " " " : with, of which, for.
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " The wood for making the lute [of
which the lute is made] is dry.
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " (add tibetan, the tib in the
file was garbled) Where can we get the cloth for making the chuba?
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " This meat for making
momos is excellent.
Nominal clauses
(MST 41.3.2) Like relative clauses, nominal clauses (whether as subject, object or complement) are
formed with the use of a nominalizer, but it is important to distinguish between the two types. For this
purpose the nominalizers " " , " " " , and " " " " " are used (see MST 11, 25) . They may be followed by the
genitive or oblique case (when the function of the clause requires it). The syntactic position of the
nominal clause in the sentence depends on its function as subject, object or complement.
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " I hope you ll be able to come. (nominal
clause = complement of the noun " " " " " " " )
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " "
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " I pray that you should be in good health and that you study well. (nominal
clause = object of the verb " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " )
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " She realized
that the girl was her own sister. (nominal clause = object of the verb " " " " )
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " Did he think
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all Tibetans were poor? (nominal clause =object of the verb " " " " ) " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " "
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " idem.
The nominalizer " " " "
(MST 20.3.1) In a more formal register, this nominalizer is pronounced -(n)khen, whereas in
conversation it is usually pronounced as " " " , and even " " " . The verb to which it is attached takes the
present-future.
" " " " " " " " " but not *" " " " " " " " " "
" " " " " " " " but not *" " " " " " " " " "
" " " " " " " " " but not *" " " " " " " " " " "
Like other nominalizers, it can form nominal clauses as well as relative clauses (see MST 26). This
nominalizer prototypically indicates the agent of the verbal action, but also extends to the subject of
transitive verbs and even (in most cases) to the subject of intransitive verbs.
" " " " " " " " " " " the person who writes, the writer
" " " " " " " " " the person who is speaking, the speaker
" " " " " " " " the person who is eating
" " " " " " " " " " the person who is selling, the vendor
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " the dreamer
" " " " " " " " " the person who is sleeping, the sleeper
Formulations with " " " " may sometimes be translated by terms for agents in European languages. In
English, the suf x er or the name of a profession often best conveys the sense of this nominalizer.
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " He s a baker. (lit. he s a bread-maker)
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" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " Our
Chinese friend is a lm-maker.
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " Who s the person who s smoking? or Who s the
smoker?
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " The person who has the
black car is the mayor of a district, or The owner of the black car is&
In certain cases, verbs that are nominalized with " " " " are practically the same as conjugated verbs.
For example, the sentence: " " " " " " " " (" " " )" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " I m also going, which literally means:
I m also a goer is similar to: " " " " " " " " (" " " )" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " idem.
Remarks on the tense of nominalized verbs.
The nominalizer, as we have seen, marks the subject of both transitive and intransitive verbs. In the
former case, the tense-aspect of the verb is unspeci ed, and must be deduced from the context. Thus
the sentence Who is the person who is smoking (or who smokes) could just as well be translated by
the imperfective past as Who is the person who was smoking? (or who used to smoke?) or the past
perfective, Who is the person who (has) smokedc
By contrast, when the nominalizer is used with an intransitive verb, it indicates the present or
the future (or else the imperfective past). To indicate the past (perfective) corresponding to the
English perfect or preterite, Tibetan uses another nominalizer: " " .
" " " " " " " " " " " the person who is going, goes, will go, was going
" " " " " " " " " " " the person who is staying, who stays, will stay, was staying
" " " " " " " " " the person who went, has gone
" " " " " " " " " the person who stayed, has stayed
The nominalizer " " (and " " " " " " /" " )
(MST 25.3.1) Historically speaking, of the nominalizing suf xes (see MST 11.4, 18.4 and 20.4), the
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suf x" " occupies an essential place to the extent that it is the basic marker of nominalization in
Literary Tibetan. In Standard Spoken Tibetan, however, it has far fewer functions.
In Literary Tibetan, the suf x" " sometimes appears in the variant form: [54] " " .
After the consonants " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " > " "
After vowels and the consonants " " " " " " " " " " " " " " > " "
In the spoken language, this rule is not followed, and the form " " is used in all contexts. [55]
In colloquial speech, the suf x *
" " " " " " sometimes replaces " " , but this suf x is never written, and has
no known spelling.
The suf x
" " is associated only with the past tense form of the verb, and refers to a past perfective
action.
" " " " " " " " but not *" " " " " " "
" " " " " " " " but not *" " " " " "
A nominalized verb may be followed by a demonstrative, an inde nite article or other determinants
such as any substantive.
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " Those that [you] mentioned.
Functions of " "
(MST 25.3.1) The suf x
" " has two essential functions [56] :
1. It denotes prototypically the grammatical patient of the verbal action in the perfective past. That is, it
refers to the direct object when it is used with a transitive verb or the subject when it is used with an
intransitive verb.
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " that which has been built
" " " " " " " " " that which has been written
" " " " " " " " " " that which has been washed
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" " " " " " " " " [the person] who lived, sat
" " " " " " " " [the person] who came
" " " " " " " " [the person] who cried
" " " " " " [the person] who went to bed
However, it also extends to the subject of transitive benefactive verbs:
" " " " " " " " [the person] who has
" " " " " " " " [the person] who has obtained
2. The suf x" " may also be neutral and nominalize the entire clause.
In this case, the suf x is not oriented towards any grammatical role and nominalizes the entire clause.
From a syntactic point of view, the nominalized verb functions as a head noun and may be translated
in English by a verb in the in nitive, an -
ing clause, a that clause or even by a noun.
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " The fact that she took rst place
made me happy.
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " It s very important to know Tibetan. or
Knowledge of Tibetan is very important.
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " To be able to plant hair on the
head is incredible!
It is only from the context that we can distinguish between the two functions described above, as the
following examples show:
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " Who s the person who came a short while ago?
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " It was a good thing/ idea [for us] to
come here today!
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What is being nominalized in the rst case is the verb to come modifying the head noun this one,
and in the second the clause we came here today.
The nominalizer " " " " "
(MST 32.3.1) Like other nominalizers, this one is directly suf xed to the verb, which goes in the
present-future.
" " " " " " " " " " way of speaking
" " " " " " " " " " " " way of writing
" " " " " " " " " way of eating
" " " " " " " " " " way of looking, considering
The following forms, in which the verb is in the past, are incorrect:
*" " " " " " " " " " " "
*" " " " " " " " " " "
*" " " " " " " " " " " "
This nominalizer shows the way in which the action designated by the verb is performed.
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " "
The way they build houses in Tibet today is not as it was in the past.
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " The way men and women
wear the chuba is different.
The nominalizer may also be translated by a noun.
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " the lifestyle (lit.: the way of leading one s life)
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " the production of tormas
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The nominalizer " " " " "
(MST 36.3.1) Like other nominalizers, this one is attached directly to the verb, which takes the present-
future form.
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " This is what we usually say.
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " When we make a chang
offering, this is how we usually sing.
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " As they say, to
exchange a horse for a donkey . (i.e., to make a bad deal)
The nominalizers " " " " and " " " " "
(MST 39.3.1) The nominalizer " " " " , derived from a noun method, way, has a rst meaning similar to
" " " " " (see MST 32), but occurs mainly in Literary Tibetan or in a formal spoken language. It
expresses the way or the manner the verbal action is performed.
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " He explained how
Tibetan paper is made.
The nominalizer " " " " , and its literary homologue " " " " " manner, has a second meaning when used
with reported speech. It indicates that the speaker is not necessarily subscribing to what he or she is
reporting. It may be translated by they say that or apparently.
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " "
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " They say that there used to be seven thousand seven hundred
monks in this monastery.
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " He claimed to be a lama.
The nominalizers " " " and " " " " "
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(MST 11.3.3) The suf xes
" " " and " " " " " are associated only with the present-future form of the verb.
" " " " " " " " but not *" " " " " " " " "
" " " " " " " but not *" " " " " " " " "
" " " " " " " " " but not *" " " " " " " " " "
The suf x" " " , which is sometimes spelled " " " , does not occur in Literary Tibetan, which instead uses
the nominalizer " " . The form " " " " " , on the other hand, is used both in Spoken Tibetan and in the
literary language.
The functions of " " "
Verbs followed by the nominalizer " " " indicate the present, future or imperfective past according to the
context. Furthermore, they often convey a sense of obligation (deontic sense).
The nominalizer " " " is used to form nominal and relative clauses. A distinction needs to be made
between two functions:
The nominalizer indicates the grammatical patient of the verbal action (the object of a transitive verb or
the subject of an intransitive verb) in the present and future. [57]
" " " " " " " " " " that (which) needs to be written, that (which) one writes
" " " " " " " " " (L.: " " " " " " " " " " ) that (which) is to be offered, that (which) one offers
" " " " " " " " " that (which) is to be visited, that one visits
" " " " " " " " " that (which) is to be built, that (which) one builds
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " Where are the cups to be
washed?
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " The things (that have) to be taken are over
there.
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " (" " " " " " " " " " )" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " Have you brought the book that
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we re going to present?
The suf x also operates as a neutral nominalizer: it nominalizes theentire clause.
In this case, the suf x is not oriented towards any grammatical role and nominalizes the entire clause.
From a syntactic point of view, the nominalized verb functions as a head noun and may be translated
in English by a verb in the in nitive, by aning- clause, a that- clause or even by a noun:
" " " " " " " " " " (the fact of) writing
" " " " " " " " " (L.: " " " " " " " " " " ) (the fact of) offering
" " " " " " " " " (the fact of) visiting
" " " " " " " " " (the fact of) constructing, construction
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " I ve forgotten to bring the book.
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " Studying is very important.
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " There are many small monasteries to
visit.
Only the syntactic context allows one to distinguish between the neutral nominalizer and the patient-
centered nominalizer.
The functions of " " " " "
Verbs followed by the nominalizer " " " " " correspond to the future or the imperfective, often with a
sense of obligation. The functions of the nominalizer " " " " " are analogous to those of " " " , though it
has more formal, and rather literary, overtones.
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " I ve forgotten to bring the book.
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " There are many small monasteries to
visit.
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The nominalizer " "
(MST 18.3.1) MST 11 introduced nominalizers that transform a verb (or an entire clause) into a noun
phrase. Like other nominalizers, this one can form nominal clauses as well as relative clauses (see
MST 26).
The verb to which the suf x
" " is attached appears in the present-future stem form, but it may be used
in the context of the past, present or future.
" " " " " " " but not *" " " " " " " "
" " " " " " but not *" " " " " " " "
" " " " " " " " but not *" " " " " "
The nominalizer " " relates to the location or the goal of the verbal action. [58]
" " " " " " " " " the place where one writes, or upon which one writes
" " " " " " " " (" " " " " " " " " ) the place where one makes an offering, the person to whom one makes
an offering
" " " " " " " the person to whom one speaks, the place where one speaks
" " " " " " " the place where one sleeps
" " " " " " " " " the place towards which one goes, the trail
Formulations with " " are very common in Tibetan, and may sometimes be translated by nouns in
European languages.
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " (" " " " " " " " " )" " " " " " " " " " Is there a room here?
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " Where s the gas station?
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " The ticket of ce is over there.
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" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " Is that a teashop? or Is that a teacup?
In these examples, the four substantives room, gas station, ticket of ce and teacup would be
translated literally as sitting place, gasoline pouring place, ticket buying place and tea drinking
place.
The nominalizer " " provides no clues about the tense-aspect of the verb, which has to be deduced
from the context.
Notes
[37] Between 200 and 999 dang is optional and is usually dropped.
[38] When the marker is not accentuated it is pronounced without stress: -tso.
[39] There are no exceptions to this rule in the written language, and very few in Spoken Tibetan.
[40] Our presentation of case does not reflect the Tibetan grammatical tradition which is based on
Sanskrit, a sacred language for Tibetans (Sanskrit is an Indo-European language entirely different in
its structures from the Tibeto-Burman languages). The Tibetan tradition usually mentions eight cases
corresponding to the eight Sanskrit cases in the following order: first case: ngo bo tsam
absolutive (Ø), second case: las su bya ba accusative (la or its variants), third case: byed sgra
agentive or instrumental (gis and its variants), fourth case: dgos ched dative (la or its variants), fifth
case: byung khungs ablative (nas or las), sixth case: brel sgra genitive (gi or its variants), seventh
case: gnas gzhi locative (la or its variants), eighth case: bod sgra vocative (Ø).
[41] In traditional grammars, dang is not considered to be a case (rnam dbye) but a particle (tshig
phrad). See MST 9.3.3 and Appendix 1, section 3.3 for an explanation of why it is treated as a case in
this Manual.
[42] Unlike the other cases which are overtly marked by a particle, the absolutive is not distinguished
by any formal marker.
[43] The role of patient also includes the experiencer of an emotion.
[44] In traditional grammars, the rst is referred to as the particle of the main agent (
byed pa po gtso
bo), while the second is referred to as the particle of the secondary agent (byed pa po phal ba).
[45] We may compare the same transitive statement in ve different languages, which all operate
according to an accusative model. Latin: ego ill+um libr+um legi Russian: ja t+
u knig+u proc l I +
Nomin. this + Accus. book + Accus. read (past) Chinese: wo kan-guo zhe+ben shu French: j ai lu ce
livre English: I read this book
[46] A title, accorded to certain lamas, meaning precious.
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[47] In Literary Tibetan, there are seven forms. See MST Appendix 1, section 3.3.
[48] The same structure is used in Russian, Hebrew and numerous other languages that lack a proper
verb to have.
[49] All these nominalizers are used in Literary Tibetan with the exception of ya and nkyo . The latter is
used exclusively in a familiar register, and despite the frequency of its occurrence doesn t gure in
grammars. The spelling given here is purely phonetic. All the other suf xes are clearly derived from
nouns and have kept a grammatical role linked with their original meaning.
[50] In English, nominal clauses correspond to that clauses, -ing clauses, and in nitive clauses. See
MST 11.3.3.
[51] In English, relative clauses are introduced by wh-pronouns or that (including zero-that). See 26.
3.1.
[52] Remember that the marker nkyo is also used instead of pa in colloquial language.
[53] That is, both tense and aspect. Remember that the term present actually refers to the
imperfective present and past, and that the term past denotes the perfective past (see MST 10).
[54] But be careful! This modi cation applies only to verb suf xes, and not to suf xes with other
functions such as noun or adjective suf xes. Thus Standard Tibetan sayskhang pa house and stong
pa empty, not khang ba and stong ba.
[55] Some speakers do, however, follow the rule. In this case, they apply the phonological rule of
omitting the bilabial /w/ described in section 1.1 of MST Appendix 1: nang wa > nang nga, ph l wa >
ph l la, tshar wa > tshar ra.
[56] In the same way as the nominalizer " " " , see MST 11.
[57] From a syntactic point of view, the nominalized verb functions here as a head noun or as a
modi er of the head noun and may often be translated in English by using a relative clause (see also
MST 26) as the examples show.
[58] In other words, the suf x indicates locative adverbials and indirect objects.
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