A Multiplicity of Intelligences: In tribute to Professor Luigi Vignolo
© Howard Gardner, 1998/2004
An earlier version of this article was published in the SCEINTIFIC AMERICAN, 1998.
As a psychologist, I was surprised by the huge public interest in The Bell Curve, the book on
human intelligence by psychologist Richard Herrnstein and policy analyst Charles Murray
(1994). Most of the ideas in the book were ones that were familiar not only to social
scientists but also to the general public. Indeed, Berkeley educational psychologist Arthur
Jensen (1969) and Richard Herrnstein (1973) himself had written popularly about the very
same ideas a quarter of century before. Perhaps, I reasoned, ever quarter century a new
generation of Americans and perhaps individuals from other lands-- desires to be
acquainted with The Psychologist's Orthodoxy about intelligence.
Thanks to the energies and convictions of a few researchers, the major precepts of
"intelligence theory" had been put forth by the second decade of the century. According to
this orthodoxy, there is a single intelligence, often called g for general intelligence.
Individuals are born with a certain intelligence or potential intelligence; this intelligence is
difficult to change; and psychologists can assess one's intelligence (or IQ) using short-answer
tests, and, perhaps, other "purer" measures, such as the time it takes to react to a flashing
light or the presence of a certain pattern of brain waves.
Soon after this "hedgehog" orthodoxy had been proposed, more "foxlike" critics arose.
From outside of psychology, commentators like Walter Lippmann (1976) challenged the
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kinds of items used to assess intelligence, contending that intelligence was more complex
and less fixed than the psychometricians had proposed. From within psychology, scientists
questioned the notion of a single overarching intelligence. According to their analyses,
intelligence is better thought of as a set of several factors. According to the University of
Chicago's L. L. Thurstone (1938), it makes more sense to think of seven largely independent
"vectors of the mind." The University of Southern California's J. P. Guilford (1967)
enunciated 120 factors, later inflated to 150. Scottish investigator Godfrey Thomson (1939)
spoke about a large number of loosely coupled faculties. And in our own day, Yale's Robert
Sternberg (1985) has proposed a triarchic theory of intellect: these arches encompass a
component that deals with standard computational skill, a component that is sensitive to
contextual factors, and a component that deals with novelty.
Somewhat surprisingly, all of these commentators whether in favor of or opposed to the
notion of single intelligence share one feature. They all believe that the nature of
intelligence will be determined by the devising of tests and the analysis of data thus secured.
Perhaps, reason monists like Herrnstein and Murray, performance on a variety of tests will
yield a strong general factor of intelligence. And indeed, there is evidence for such a
"positive manifold" across tests. Perhaps, counter the pluralists like Thurstone and
Sternberg, the right set of tests will demonstrate that the mind consists of a number of
relatively independent factors, with strength in one area failing to predict strength or
weakness in other areas.
But where is it written that intelligence needs to be determined on the basis of tests? Were
we incapable of making judgments about intellect before Alfred Binet and Francis Galton
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cobbled together the first set of psychometric items a century ago? If the dozens of IQ tests
in use around the world were suddenly to disappear, would we no longer be able to make
assessments of intellect?
Twenty-five years ago, posing just these questions, I embarked on a distinctly different path
toward the investigation of intellect. I had been conducting research with two groups:
children who were talented in one or more art form; adults who had suffered from a stroke
that compromised certain capacities while sparing others. Every day I saw individuals with
scattered profiles of strengths and weaknesses; and I was impressed by the fact that a
strength, or a deficit, could cohabit comfortably with different profiles of abilities and
disabilities across the variety of humankind. It seemed to me that the data of
neurospsychology were a powerful critique of the notion that there exists but a single
intelligence. (REFERENCE TO WORK OF VIGNOLO)
On the basis of such data, I arrived at a firm intuition: Human beings are better thought of
as possessing a number of relatively independent faculties, rather than as having a certain
amount of intellectual horsepower (or IQ) that can be simply channeled in one or another
direction. I decided to search for a better formulation of human intelligence. I proposed a
new definition: an intelligence is a psychobiological potential to process information so as to
solve problems or to fashion products that are valued in at least one cultural context. In my
focus on fashioning products and my sensitivity to cultural values, I departed from orthodox
psychometric approaches such as that adopted by Herrnstein, Murray and their predecessors.
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To proceed from an intuition to a definition to a set of human intelligences, I developed a
set of criteria. These criteria were drawn from several sources:
ć% psychology: the existence of a distinct developmental history for a capacity; the existence
of correlations (or lack of correlations) between certain capacities;
ć% observations of unusual human beings: individuals who were prodigies, idiot savants, or
who exhibited learning disabilities;
ć% anthropology: ethnographic records of how different abilities are developed, ignored, or
prized in different cultures;
ć% cultural studies: the existence of symbol systems that encode certain kinds of meanings;
ć% the biological sciences: evidence that a capacity is represented in particular neural
structures; evidence of a distinct evolutionary history for a particular capacity.
Armed with these criteria, I considered many capacities, ranging from those based in the
senses to those having to do with planning to such possibilities as sense of humor or sexual
prowess. To the extent that a candidate ability met all or most of the criteria handily, it
gained plausibility as an intelligence. In 1983, I concluded that seven candidate intelligences
met the criteria sufficiently well: linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, spatial, bodily-
kinesthetic, interpersonal, and intrapersonal (Gardner 1983). Most standard measures of
intelligence primarily probe linguistic and logical intelligence; some survey spatial
intelligence; the remaining four are almost entirely ignored. In 1995, invoking new data that
fit the criteria, I added an eighth intelligence that of the naturalist: I am also considering
the possibility of a ninth or existential intelligence one that captures the human proclivity
to raise and ponder fundamental questions about existence, life, death, finitude (see Gardner
1999, chapters 4 and 5). Whether existential intelligence gets to join the inner sanctum
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depends on whether convincing evidence accrues about the distinct neural basis of such an
intelligence.
The theory of multiple intelligences (MI theory, as it has come to be called) makes two
strong claims. The first claim is that all human beings possess all of these intelligences:
indeed, they can be considered a definition of homo sapiens, cognitively speaking. The second
claim is that, just as we all look different and have different personalities and temperaments,
we also exhibit different profiles of intelligences. No two individuals, not even identical
twins or clones, have exactly the same amalgam of intelligences, foregrounding the same
strengths and weaknesses. This is because, even in the case of identical genetic heritage,
individuals undergo different experiences and also seek to distinguish their profiles from one
another.
Within psychology, the theory of multiple intelligences has generated controversy. Many
researchers are nervous about the movement away from standard tests, and the adoption of
a set of criteria that are unfamiliar and less susceptible to quantification. Herrnstein and
Murray called it a "radical theory." Some have questioned whether the theory is empirical.
However, this criticism misses the mark. MI theory is based completely on empirical
evidence. The number of intelligences, their delineation, their subcomponents are all subject
to alteration in the light of new findings. Indeed, the naturalist intelligence could only be
asserted after evidence had accrued that parts of the temporal lobe are dedicated to the
naming and recognition of natural kinds, as opposed to manmade "artificial" objects
(Damasio and Damasio, 1995; Warrington and Shallice 1984). Much of the evidence for the
personal intelligences has come from research in recent decades on emotional intelligence
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(Goleman 1995) and on the development in children of a "theory of mind" (Astington
1993). And the intriguing finding that musical experiences may enhance spatial capacities
raises the possibility that musical and spatial intelligences may draw on certain common
abilities for example, the capacity to handle complex architectonic structures (Rauscher,
Shaw, and Ky 1993).
It is also worth noting that the movement toward multiple intelligences is quite consistent
with trends in related sciences. Neuroscience recognizes the modular nature of the brain;
evolutionary psychology is based on the notion that different capacities have evolved in
specific environments for specific purposes; and artificial intelligence increasingly embraces
expert systems rather than general problem-solving mechanisms. Indeed, within science, the
believers in a single IQ or general intelligence are increasingly isolated, their positions more
likely to be embraced by those, like Herrnstein and Murray, who have an ideological axe to
grind.
If psychologists expressed skepticism about the theory of multiple intelligences, educators
around the world have embraced the idea. MI theory not only comports with their
intuitions that children are smart in different kinds of ways; the theory also holds out hope
that more students can be reached more effectively, if their favored ways of knowing are
taken into account in curriculum, instruction, and assessment. In many parts of the world, a
virtual cottage industry has arisen to create MI schools, classrooms, curricula, texts,
computer systems, and the like. Most of this work is well-intentioned and some of it has
proved quite effective in motivating students and in giving them a sense of involvement in
intellectual life. However, various misconceptions have arisen: for example, that every topic
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should be taught in seven or eight ways; or that the purpose of school is to identify (and
broadcast) students' intelligences, possibly by administering an octet of new standardized
tests. I have begun to speak out about some of these less advisable beliefs and practices
(Gardner 1999a).
MI theory is best thought of as a tool, rather than as an educational goal. Educators need to
determine, in conjunction with their communities, the goals that they are seeking. Once
these goals have been articulated, then MI theory can provide powerful support. In my
view, schools should seek to develop individuals of a certain sort civic-minded, sensitive to
the arts, deeply rooted in the disciplines. And schools should probe pivotal topics with
sufficient depth so that students end up with a comprehensive understanding of these topics.
Approaches founded on multiple intelligences theory have demonstrated considerable
promise in helping schools to achieve these goals (Kornhaber, Fierros, and Veenema, 2003).
Experts interested in intelligence have debated certain topics for nearly a century: Is there
one intelligence or more than one? Can intelligence(s) be altered? Is intelligence inborn or
acquired? It would take a brave seer to predict that these debates will disappear. (In fact, if I
am correct, a latter-day Herrnstein or Murray will author her own variation on The Bell
Curve around 2020.) As the person most closely associated with the theory of multiple
intelligence, I record three wishes for this line of work:
1. A broader but not infinitely expanded view of intelligence. It is high time that intelligence
be broadened to include a range of human computational capacities, including those that
deal with music, other persons, skill in deciphering the natural world. However, it is
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important that intelligence should not be conflated with other virtues, such as creativity,
wisdom, or morality.
I also contend that intelligence should not be so broadened that it crosses the line from
description to prescription. I endorse the notion of emotional intelligence when it denotes
the capacity to compute information about one's own or others' emotional life. However,
when the term comes to encompass the kinds of persons we hope to develop, then we have
crossed the line into a value system and that should not be part of our conception of
intelligence. Thus, when Daniel Goleman stresses the importance of empathy as part of
emotional intelligence, I go along with him. But Goleman also urges that individuals care for
one another, thus crossing an important boundary. The possession of the capacity to feel
another's suffering is not the same as the decision to come to her aid. Indeed, a sadistic
individual might use her knowledge of another's psyche to inflict pain.
2. A shift away from standardized short answer "proxy" instruments to real-life
demonstrations or virtual simulations. During a certain historical period, it may have been
necessary to assess individuals by administering items that are themselves of little interest
(e.g., repeating numbers backwards) but that are thought to correlate with skills or habits of
importance. Nowadays, however, given the advent of computers and virtual technologies, it
is possible to look directly at individuals' performances to see how they can argue, debate,
look at data, critique experiments, execute works of art, and so on. As much as possible, we
should train students directly in these valued activities and we should assess how they carry
out valued performances under realistic conditions. The need for ersatz instruments, whose
relation to real world performance is often tenuous at best, should wane.
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3. The use of multiple intelligences' ideas for more effective pedagogy and assessment. I
have little sympathy with educational efforts that seek simply to "train" the intelligences or to
use the intelligences in trivial ways (e.g., singing math times tables, playing Bach while one is
doing geometry). For me, the educational power of multiple intelligences is exhibited when
these faculties are drawn on to help students master consequential disciplinary materials.
In The Disciplined Mind (1999b), I focus on three rich topics: the theory of evolution (as an
example of scientific truth); the music of Mozart (as an example of artistic beauty); and the
Holocaust (as an example of immorality in recent history). In each case, I show how the
topic can be introduced to students, through a variety of entry points (drawing respectively
on several intelligences); how the subject can be made more familiar through the use of
analogies and metaphors drawn from diverse domains; and how the core ideas of the topic
can be captured not through a single symbolic language but rather through a number of
complementary model languages or representations. Pursuing this approach, the individual
who understands evolutionary theory can think in terms of a historical narrative, a logical
syllogism, a quantitative examination of evolving populations in different niches, a diagram
of species delineation, a dramatic sense of the struggle among individuals (or genes or
populations) and so on. The individual who can think of evolution in only one way using
only one model language--actually has a tenuous command of the principal ideas.
The issue of who owns intelligence has been an important one in our society for some
time -- and it promises to be a crucial and controversial one for the foreseeable future. For
too long, the rest of society has been content to leave intelligence in the hands of
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psychometricians. Often these testmakers have a narrow, overly scholastic view of intellect;
they rely on a set of instruments that are destined to valorize certain capacities, while
ignoring those that do not lend themselves to ready formulation and testing. And in the
hands of those with a political axe to grind, they often skate close to the dangerous territory
of eugenics. MI theory represents at once an effort to base the conception of intelligence on
a much broader scientfic basis; to offer a set of tools to educators that will allow more
individuals to master substantive materials in an effective way; and to help each individual
achieve his or her human potential at the workplace, in avocations, and in the service of the
wider world.
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References
Astington, J. (1993) The child s discovery of the mind. Cambridge:Harvard University Prss.
Damasio, A. and H Damasio (June 1955) Recent trends in cognitive neuroscience. Lecture
presented at the Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Science, Stanford, California.
Gardner, H. (1983) Frames of mind: The theory of multiple intelligences. New York: Basic
Books. New Editions: 1993, 2004.
Gardner, H. (1999a) Intelligence reframed: Multiple intelligences for the 21st century. New
York: Basic Books.
Gardner, H. (1999b) The disciplined mind. New York: Simon and Schuster.
Goleman, D. (1995) Emotional intelligence. New York: Bantam Books.
Guilford, J. P. (1967) The nature of human intelligence. New York: McGraw Hill.
Herrnstein, R. (1973) IQ in the meritocracy. Boston: Little, Brown.
Herrnstein, R. and Murray, C. (1994) The bell curve. New York: Free Press.
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Jensen, A. ( 1969) How much can we boost IQ and scholastic achievement? Harvard
Educational Review 39 (1) 1-123.
Kornhaber, M., Fierros, E., and Veenema, S. (2003) Multiple intelligences Best ideas form
research and practice. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Lippmann, W. (1976) Readings from the Lippmann-Terman debate. In N.J. Block and G.
Dworkin (Eds) The IQ controversy: Critical readings. New York: Pantheon. Originally
published in 1922-23.
Rauscher, F., Shaw, G. L. and Ky, K.N. (1993) Music and spatial task performance. Nature
365, 6447, p. 611.
Sternberg, R. J. (1985) Beyond IQ: A triarchic theory of human intelligence. New York:
Cambridge University Press.
Thomson, G. (1939) The factorial analysis of human ability. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
Thurstone, L. L. (1938) Primary mental abilities. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Warrington, E. and T. Shallice (1984) Category-specific semantic impairments. Brain 107,
829-854.
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