C++ Tutorial: 2.1, Control Structures.
Section 2.1
Control Structures.
A program is usually not limited to a linear sequence of instructions. During its
process it may bifurcate, repeat code or take decisions. For that purpose, C++ provides
control structures that serve to specify what has to be done to perform our program.
With the introduction of control sequences we are going to have to introduce
a new concept:
the block of instructions. A block of instructions is a group of instructions
separated by semicolons (;) but grouped in a block delimited by
curly bracket signs: { and }.
Most of the control structures that we will see in this section allow a generic
statement as a parameter, this refers to either a single instruction
or a block of instructions, as we want. If we want the statement to be
a single instruction we do not need to enclose it between curly-brackets
({}). If we want the
statement to be more than a single instruction we must enclose them
between curly brackets ({}) forming a block of instructions.
Conditional structure: if and else
It is used to execute an instruction or block of instructions only if a
condition is fulfilled. Its form is:
if (condition) statement
where condition is the expression that is being evaluated.
If this condition is true, statement is executed.
If it is false, statement is ignored (not executed) and the program
continues on the next instruction after the conditional structure.
For example, the following code fragment prints out x is 100 only
if the value stored in variable x is indeed 100:
if (x == 100) cout << "x is 100";
If we want more than a single instruction to be executed in case that
condition is true we can specify a
block of instructions using curly brackets { }:
if (x == 100) { cout << "x is ";
cout << x; }
We can additionally specify what we want that happens if the condition
is not fulfilled by using the keyword else. Its form used in conjunction
with if is:
if (condition) statement1 else statement2
For example:
if (x == 100) cout << "x is 100";else cout << "x is not 100";
prints out on the screen x is 100 if indeed x is worth 100, but if it is
not -and only if not- it prints out x is not 100.
The if + else structures can be concatenated with the intention of verifying
a range of values. The following example shows its use telling if the present value
stored in x is positive, negative or none of the previous, that is to say,
equal to zero.
if (x > 0) cout << "x is positive";
else if (x < 0) cout << "x is negative";
else cout << "x is 0";
Remember that in case we want more than a single instruction to be executed, we must
group them in a block of instructions by using curly brackets { }.
Repetitive structures or loops
Loops have as objective to repeat a statement a certain number of times
or while a condition is fulfilled.
The while loop.
Its format is:
while (expression) statement
and its function is simply to repeat statement while
expression is true.
For example, we are going to make a program to count down using a while loop:
// custom countdown using while
#include <iostream.h>
int main ()
{
int n;
cout << "Enter the starting number > ";
cin >> n;
while (n>0) {
cout << n << ", ";
--n;
}
cout << "FIRE!";
return 0;
}
Enter the starting number > 8
8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, FIRE!
When the program starts the user is prompted to insert a starting number for the countdown.
Then the while loop begins, if the value entered by the user
fulfills the condition n>0 (that n be greater than
0 ),
the block of instructions that follows will execute an indefinite number of times while the condition
(n>0) remains true.
All the process in the program above can be interpreted according to the following script:
beginning in main:
1. User assigns a value to n.
2. The while instruction checks if (n>0). At this point
there are two possibilities:
true: execute statement (step 3,)
false: jump statement. The program follows in step 5..
3. Execute statement:
cout << n << ", "; --n;
(prints out n on screen and decreases n by 1).
4. End of block. Return Automatically to step 2.
5. Continue the program after the block: print out FIRE! and end of program.
We must consider that the loop has to end at some point, therefore, within the block
of instructions (loop's statement) we must provide some method that
forces condition to become false at some moment, otherwise the loop will
continue looping forever.
In this case we have included --n; that causes the condition
to become false after some loop repetitions: when n becomes
0, that is where our countdown ends.
Of course this is such a simple action for our computer that the whole countdown is
performed instantly without practical delay between numbers.
The do-while loop.
Format:
do statement while (condition);
Its functionality is exactly the same as the while loop except that
condition in the do-while is evaluated after the execution
of statement instead of before, granting at least one execution of
statement even if condition is never
fulfilled. For example, the following program echoes any number you enter until
you enter 0.
// number echoer
#include <iostream.h>
int main ()
{
unsigned long n;
do {
cout << "Enter number (0 to end): ";
cin >> n;
cout << "You entered: " << n << "\n";
} while (n != 0);
return 0;
}
Enter number (0 to end): 12345
You entered: 12345
Enter number (0 to end): 160277
You entered: 160277
Enter number (0 to end): 0
You entered: 0
The do-while loop is usually used when the condition that has to determine its end
is determined within the loop statement, like in the previous case, where the user input
within the block of intructions is what determines the end of the loop. If you never enter
the 0 value in the previous example the loop will never end.
The for loop.
Its format is:
for (initialization; condition; increase) statement;
and its main function is to repeat statement while
condition remains true, like the while loop. But in addition,
for provides places to specify an initialization instruction
and an increase instruction. So this loop is specially designed to
perform a repetitive action with a counter.
It works the following way:
1, initialization is executed. Generally it is an initial value setting for a counter varible. This is executed only once.
2, condition is checked, if it is true the loop continues, otherwise the loop finishes and statement is skipped.
3, statement is executed. As usual, it can be either a single instruction or a block of instructions enclosed within curly brackets { }.
4, finally, whatever is specified in the increase field is executed and the loop gets back to step 2.
Here is an example of countdown using a for loop.
// countdown using a for loop
#include <iostream.h>
int main ()
{
for (int n=10; n>0; n--) {
cout << n << ", ";
}
cout << "FIRE!";
return 0;
}
10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, FIRE!
The initialization and increase fields
are optional. They can be avoided but not the semicolon signs among them. For example
we could write: for (;n<10;) if we want to specify no
initialization and no increase; or
for (;n<10;n++)
if we want to include an increase field but not an initialization.
Optionally, using the comma operator (,) we can specify more than one
instruction in any of the fields included in a for loop, like in
initialization, for example. The comma operator (,) is an
instruction separator, it serves to separate more than one instruction where only
one instruction is generally expected. For example, suppose that we wanted to intialize
more than one variable in our loop:
for ( n=0, i=100 ; n!=i ; n++, i-- )
{
// whatever here...
}
This loop will execute 50 times if neither n nor i are
modified within the loop:
n starts with 0 and i with
100, the condition is (n!=i)
(that n be not equal to i). Beacuse n
is increased by one and i decreased by one, the loop's condition will become
false after the 50th loop, when both n and i
will be equal to 50.
Bifurcation of control and jumps.
The break instruction.
Using break we can leave a loop even if the condition for its end is not fulfilled.
It can be used to end an infinite loop, or to force it to end before its natural end.
For example, we are going to stop the count down before it naturally finishes
(an engine failure maybe):
// break loop example
#include <iostream.h>
int main ()
{
int n;
for (n=10; n>0; n--) {
cout << n << ", ";
if (n==3)
{
cout << "countdown aborted!";
break;
}
}
return 0;
}
10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, countdown aborted!
The continue instruction.
The continue instruction causes the program to skip the rest of the loop
in the present iteration as if the end of the statement block would
have been reached, causing it to jump to the following iteration. For example, we are going
to skip the number 5 in our countdown:
// break loop example
#include <iostream.h>
int main ()
{
for (int n=10; n>0; n--) {
if (n==5) continue;
cout << n << ", ";
}
cout << "FIRE!";
return 0;
}
10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 4, 3, 2, 1, FIRE!
The goto instruction.
It allows making an absolute jump to another point in the program. You should use this
feature carefully since its execution ignores any type of nesting limitation.
The destination point is identified by a label, which is then used as an argument
for the goto instruction. A label is made of a valid identifier followed by a
colon (:).
This instruction does not have a concrete utility in structured or object oriented
programming aside from those that low-level programming fans may find for it.
For example, here is our countdown loop using
goto:
// goto loop example
#include <iostream.h>
int main ()
{
int n=10;
loop:
cout << n << ", ";
n--;
if (n>0) goto loop;
cout << "FIRE!";
return 0;
}
10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, FIRE!
The exit function.
exit is a function defined in
cstdlib (stdlib.h) library.
The purpose of exit is to terminate the running program with an
specific exit code. Its prototype is:
void exit (int exit code);
The exit code is used by some operating systems and may be used by calling
programs. By convention, an exit code of 0 means that the
program finished normally and any other value means an error happened.
The selective Structure: switch.
The syntax of the switch instruction is a bit peculiar.
Its objective is to check several possible constant values for an expression, something
similar to what we did at the beginning of this section with the linking of several
if and else if sentences. Its form is the following:
switch (expression) {
case constant1:
block of instructions 1
break;
case constant2:
block of instructions 2
break;
.
.
.
default:
default block of instructions
}
It works in the following way: switch evaluates expression and
checks if it is equivalent to
constant1, if it is, it executes block of instructions 1
until it finds the break keyword, then the program will
jump to the end of the switch selective structure.
If expression was not equal to constant1
it will check if expression is equivalent to constant2.
If it is, it will execute block of instructions 2 until it
finds the break keyword.
Finally, if the value of expression has not matched any of the
previously specified constants (you may specify as many case sentences as
values you want to check), the program will execute the instructions included in the
default: section, if this one exists, since it is optional.
Both of the following code fragments are equivalent:
switch example
if-else equivalent
switch (x) {
case 1:
cout << "x is 1";
break;
case 2:
cout << "x is 2";
break;
default:
cout << "value of x unknown";
}
if (x == 1) {
cout << "x is 1";
}
else if (x == 2) {
cout << "x is 2";
}
else {
cout << "value of x unknown";
}
I have commented before that the syntax of the switch instruction is a
bit peculiar. Notice the inclusion of the break instructions at the end of each
block. This is necessary because if, for example, we did not include it after
block of instructions 1 the program would not jump to the end of the
switch selective block (}) and it would continue executing the rest of
the blocks of instructions until the first appearance of the break instruction or
the end of the switch selective block. This makes it unnecessary to include
curly brackets { } in each of the cases, and it can also be useful to
execute the same block of instructions for different possible values for the expression
evaluated. For example:
switch (x) {
case 1:
case 2:
case 3:
cout << "x is 1, 2 or 3";
break;
default:
cout << "x is not 1, 2 nor 3";
}
Notice that switch can only be used to compare an
expression with different constants.
Therefore we cannot put variables (case (n*2):) or
ranges (case (1..3):) because they are not valid constants.
If you need to check ranges or values that are not constants use a concatenation
of if and else if sentences.
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