CHAPTER 2 ATOMIC STRUCTURE
(IB TOPICS 2 AND 12) SUMMARY
Introduction
" Relative masses: p = 1, n = 1, e = 1/1840; charges: p = +1, n = 0, e = 1.
" Protons and neutrons are present in the nucleus of an atom, electrons are in orbits or
shells around the nucleus.
" Atomic number, Z = number of protons; the fundamental characteristic of an element.
" Mass number, A = number of (protons + neutrons).
" Isotopes: same atomic number, different mass number OR same number of protons,
different number of neutrons OR atoms of the same element with different masses.
" Isotopes differ in physical properties that depend on mass such as density, rate of
diffusion etc. Chemical properties are the same because of the same electronic
configuration or arrangement.
" Atomic mass of an element is the average of the atomic masses of its isotopes; depends
on isotopes relative abundance; leads to non-integer atomic masses.
Mass Spectrometer
" Stages of Operation: Vaporization of sample, ionization to produce M+ ions, acceleration
of ions by electric field, deflection of ions by magnetic field, vacuum, detection of ions.
" Degree of deflection:
" Lower the mass, higher the deflection.
" Higher the charge, higher the deflection.
" Deflection reflects mass/charge ratio; for charge of +1, deflection depends on mass.
" For an element, the mass spectrum gives two important pieces of information: the number
of isotopes, and the abundance of each isotope; thus the relative average atomic mass, Ar
can be calculated.
" For a molecule, the highest peak represents the molecular (parent) ion and its mass gives
the relative molecular mass, Mr of the compound (and the fragmentation pattern can help
determine its structure).
o A continuous spectrum contains light of all wavelengths in the visible range.
o A line spectrum consists of a few lines of different wavelengths.
o When electrons are excited, they jump to higher energy levels.
o Electrons fall back to lower energy levels, and the energy equivalent to the difference
in energy level is emitted in the form of photons.
o Energy levels come together in terms of energy the farther away they are from the
nucleus; this explains the convergence of lines in a line spectrum.
o The maximum number of electrons in a main energy level n is 2n2:
1st energy level, n = 1; maximum 2 e ;
n = 2, maximum 8 e ;
n = 3, maximum 18 e .
The electron arrangement (or configuration) indicates the number of electrons and their energy
distribution. This determines an element s physical and chemical properties.
© IBID Press 2007 1
CHAPTER 2 ATOMIC STRUCTURE
(IB TOPICS 2 AND 12) SUMMARY
" Main (or principal) energy levels, sub-levels and orbitals: The main energy levels, n
are assigned whole number integers, n = 1, 2, 3, 4& . n = 1 represents the lowest energy
level. Each main energy level contains n sub-levels and a total of n2 orbitals.
o s, p, d, f etc. is the common notation for sub-levels and orbitals within sub-levels. An
orbital is an area of space around the nucleus in which an electron moves.
o Orbitals have characteristic shapes. There is one s orbital which is spherical in shape,
three p orbitals which are dumbbell shaped, called px, py pz, and arranged in the x, y,
and z directions respectively, five d orbitals and seven f orbitals (both with complex
shapes). The relative energies of s, p, d, and f orbitals with in a sub-level are: s < p <
d < f.
o Each orbital can have a maximum of 2 electrons. n = 1 has one sub-level which is
called an s sub-level and which contains one s orbital. n = 2 has two sub-levels: 2s
and 2p; n = 3 has 3 sub-levels: 3s, 3p and 3d; n = 4 has 4 sub-levels:4s, 4p, 4d and 4f,
etc.
" The Aufbau ( building-up ) Principle: Electrons are placed in orbitals in order of
increasing energy, starting with the lowest energy level, and in general, filling each sub-
level completely before beginning the next. This is due to the fact that systems in nature
prefer minimum energy in order to achieve maximum stability.
" Hund s Rule: Occupation of sub-levels takes place singly as far as possible before
pairing starts.
" Pauli exclusion principle: No two electrons in an atom can be in exactly the same state;
no two electrons in a given atom can have the same four quantum numbers (that is, these
can not be in the same place at the same time)
" nlx notation is used to describe the electron configuration of an element: n is the main
energy level, l the sub-level, and x is the number of electrons in the sub-level.
" The ionisation energy of an atom is the minimum amount of energy required to remove a
mole of electrons from a mole of gaseous atoms to form a mole of gaseous ions.
(N.B. Shading indicates Topic 12 (AHL) material.)
© IBID Press 2007 2
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