Richard Bauckham
Richard Bauckham
The Jewish World
The Jewish World
around the New Testament
around the New Testament
Collected Essays I
Collected Essays I
K
Richard Bauckham,
The Jewish World around the New Testament,
Baker Academic, a division of Baker Publishing Group, © 2010. Used by permission.
Richard Bauckham, born 1946; 1973 PhD University of Cambridge, England; 1977 87
Lecturer in the History of Christian Thought, 1987 92 Reader in the History of
Christian Thought, University of Manchester, England; 1992 2007 Professor of New
Testament Studies, St Mary s College, St Andrews University, Scotland; now emeritus
Professor, St Andrews University, and Senior Scholar, Ridley Hall, Cambridge.
© 2008 by Mohr Siebeck, Tübingen, Germany
Paperback edition published in North America in 2010 by Baker Academic
a division of Baker Publishing Group
P.O. Box 6287, Grand Rapids, MI 49516-6287
www.bakeracademic.com
ISBN 978-0-8010-3903-4
Originally published in 2008 in Tübingen, Germany, by Mohr Siebeck GmbH & C. KG
Tübingen as The Jewish World around the New Testament: Collected Essays I, Wissenschaftliche
Untersuchungen zum Neuen Testament 233.
Printed in the United States of America
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Richard Bauckham,
The Jewish World around the New Testament,
Baker Academic, a division of Baker Publishing Group, © 2010. Used by permission.
Table of Contents
1. Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
2. The Martyrdom of Enoch and Elijah: Jewish or Christian? . . . . . . . 3
3. Enoch and Elijah in the Coptic Apocalypse of Elijah . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
4. The Rise of Apocalyptic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
5. The Delay of the Parousia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
6. A Note on a Problem in the Greek Version of 1 Enoch 1. 9. . . . . . . 89
7. The Son of Man: A Man in my Position or Someone ? . . . . . . . . . 93
8. The Apocalypses in the New Pseudepigrapha . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
9. Pseudo-Apostolic Letters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
10. Kainam the Son of Arpachshad in Luke s Genealogy . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
11. The List of the Tribes of Israel in Revelation 7. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
12. The Parting of the Ways: What Happened and Why. . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
13. The Messianic Interpretation of Isaiah 10:34 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
14. The Relevance of Extra-Canonical Jewish Texts
to New Testament Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
15. Josephus Account of the Temple in Contra Apionem 2.102 109 . . 221
16. Life, Death, and the Afterlife in Second Temple Judaism . . . . . . . . . 245
17. What if Paul had Travelled East rather than West? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
18. Covenant, Law and Salvation in the Jewish Apocalypses . . . . . . . . . 269
19. The Restoration of Israel in Luke-Acts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
20. Paul and Other Jews with Latin Names in the New Testament . . . . 371
21. The Horarium of Adam and the Chronology of the Passion . . . . . . 393
22. The Spirit of God in us Loathes Envy (James 4:5) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
Richard Bauckham,
The Jewish World around the New Testament,
Baker Academic, a division of Baker Publishing Group, © 2010. Used by permission.
VI Table of Contents
23. Tobit as a Parable for the Exiles of Northern Israel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433
24. The Continuing Quest for the Provenance of Old Testament
Pseudepigrapha . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461
Particulars of First Publication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485
Index of Scriptures and Other Ancient Writings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 487
Index of Ancient Persons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 532
Index of Modern Authors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 538
Index of Place Names . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 546
Richard Bauckham,
The Jewish World around the New Testament,
Baker Academic, a division of Baker Publishing Group, © 2010. Used by permission.
1. Introduction
Most New Testament scholars would now agree that the New Testament
writings belong wholly within the Jewish world of their time. However
much some may be in serious conflict with other Jewish groups, these
disagreements take place within the Jewish world. Even New Testament
works authored by and / or addressed to non-Torah-observant Gentile
Christians still move within the Jewish world of ideas. Their God is un-
equivocally the God of Israel and of the Jewish Scriptures that they treat
as self-evidently their own. Jesus for them is the Messiah of Israel and the
Messiah also for the nations only because he is the Messiah of Israel. This is
not to deny the obvious influence of the non-Jewish Greco-Roman world
in which the New Testament writings also belong, but that influence was
felt right across the Jewish world in varying ways and to varying degrees.
The most profound influence of Hellenistic thought in the Jewish world of
the first century ce is to be found, not in the New Testament, but in Philo
of Alexandria, such that it was Philo, more than any of the New Testament
writers, who prepared the way for the kind of profound engagement with
Hellenistic philosophy that later Christian scholars, such as Clement of
Alexandria and Origen, pursued.
The essays collected in this volume were written over the course of thirty
years of study of the New Testament and early Judaism, and their topics are
quite diverse, but they all share that basic perspective on the historical place
of the New Testament writings within late Second Temple Judaism. In an
essay I wrote to introduce students and beginning scholars to the relevance
of extra-canonical Jewish literature to the study of the New Testament
(chapter 14 in this volume) I said: The NT student and scholar must use
the Jewish literature in the first place to understand Judaism. Only someone
who understands early Judaism for its own sake will be able to use Jewish
texts appropriately and accurately in the interpretation of the NT. Accord-
ingly the present volume includes some essays that make no or only passing
reference to the New Testament but are intended as contributions to the
understanding of Second Temple Judaism and its literature: these include
chapters 15 (on Josephus), 16 (on Jewish beliefs about death and afterlife),
18 (on the Jewish apocalypses), and 23 (on the book of Tobit). Most of the
Richard Bauckham,
The Jewish World around the New Testament,
Baker Academic, a division of Baker Publishing Group, © 2010. Used by permission.
2 1. Introduction
essays in this volume relate some part or feature of the New Testament to
the literature, religion or life of Jews in that period.
The main literary sources for late Second Temple Judaism are the Apoc-
rypha, Old Testament pseudepigrapha, the Dead Sea Scrolls, and the works
of Josephus and Philo. Rabbinic literature, though of much later date, can
be relevant when used with caution, and we should not forget that the New
Testament itself is evidence of the Judaism of its period, not only in the sense
that the early Christian movement from which it comes was itself Jewish,
but also in the sense that it refers to other forms and aspects of the Judaism
of its period. As well as the literary sources, there is also documentary and
epigraphic material, both from Palestine and from the Diaspora. Among
these sources, these essays make most use (besides the New Testament) of
the Apocrypha and pseudepigrapha, which have long been my special inter-
est, though many of the essays do also refer to and discuss other sources.
Among the sources, the most problematic as evidence for late Second Tem-
ple Judaism are the rabbinic literature, because of its date, and the so-called
Old Testament pseudepigrapha. I do not say the Pseudepigrapha because,
unlike the Apocrypha, these are not a defined body of literature with even
approximately agreed boundaries, but an indefinite category. While some
of these writings can be conclusively shown to be early Jewish writings, the
fact that most of them are known only from manuscripts of Christian prov-
enance means that, not only is their date often hard to determine, but also
whether they are of Christian or Jewish origin may be more debatable than
some scholars have assumed. It is interesting that this issue of the Jewish or
Christian provenance, either of Old Testament pseudepigrapha themselves
or of traditions they transmit, is common to both the first and the last of the
essays in this collection, showing that this is an issue of which I have long
been aware. In chapter 21 I provide new arguments for the Jewish prov-
enance of a text generally thought to be most likely of Christian origin.
The essays appear in the chronological order of their original publication,
except that chapter 3 belongs so obviously with chapter 2 that I thought it
best to place it out of chronological order. There is not much in these essays
on which I have significantly changed my mind. Chapter 4 covers a large
topic on which much has been written since I wrote it, but the most impor-
tant point that would be different if I were to write it now is that I would not
use the term apocalyptic to refer to a kind of eschatology or a set of ideas,
but only in a literary sense with reference to the literary genre apocalypse.
To chapters 2 and 20 I have added appendices updating my treatments with
reference to subsequently published information and discussion, but it
would have been impractical to do this in other cases.
Special thanks are due to Patrick Egan, who compiled the indices.
Richard Bauckham,
The Jewish World around the New Testament,
Baker Academic, a division of Baker Publishing Group, © 2010. Used by permission.
2. The Martyrdom of Enoch and Elijah:
Jewish or Christian?*
From the standpoint of biblical theology the establishment of the date of
the apocalyptic tradition of the martyrdom of the returning of Elijah is of
great importance (J. Jeremias).1 Almost all references to the martyrdom
of the returning Elijah are to be found in early Christian literature and
are references to the joint martyrdom of Elijah and Enoch at the hands of
Antichrist:2 the question of the origin of this Christian tradition of the mar-
tyrdom of Enoch and Elijah has, therefore, been regarded as a major line of
inquiry in the search for a pre-Christian Jewish tradition of the martyrdom
of Elijah. W. Bousset in 1895 sifted early Christian traditions about Anti-
christ to reconstruct a pre-Christian tradition which included the return of
Enoch and Elijah to denounce Antichrist and to suffer martyrdom.3 But
texts of some importance to the question have come to light only since
Bousset wrote, including the relevant section of the Coptic Apocalypse
of Elijah, on which Jeremias s case for a pre-Christian tradition of Elijah s
martyrdom depends heavily. This article is an attempt to reexamine the
origins of the Christian tradition of the martyrdom of Enoch and Elijah. To
facilitate this a diagrammatic analysis of the relevant texts is included.
The table lists only motifs which occur in more than one of the texts. The
texts (which include several that were unavailable to Bousset) are:
(A) Rev 11:3 13.
(B) Coptic Apocalypse of Elijah (in G. Steindorff, Die Apokalypse des Elias [TU
17/3 a; Leipzig: Hinrichs, 1899]).
(C) Ethiopic Apocalypse of Peter, chap. 2 (tr. in E. Hennecke and W. Schneemelcher
(eds.), New Testament Apocrypha [ed. R. McL. Wilson; London. Lutterworth,
1965], 2. 669).
(D) Tertullian, De anima 50.
* First publication: Journal of Biblical Literature 95 (1976) 447 458.
1
TDNT 2 (1964) 941.
2
Jeremias (TDNT 2 [1964] 941 n. 106) cites one rabbinic reference to Elijah s death.
For the death of Elijah in Lactantius and Commodian, see n. 19 below.
3
The Antichrist Legend (London: Hutchinson, 1896 [German original, Göttingen:
Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1895]) 203 11. The term Antichrist is strictly anachronistic
with reference to Jewish literature, but for convenience I have used it throughout this arti-
cle with reference to both Jewish and Christian concepts of an eschatological adversary.
Richard Bauckham,
The Jewish World around the New Testament,
Baker Academic, a division of Baker Publishing Group, © 2010. Used by permission.
4 2. The Martyrdom of Enoch and Elijah: Jewish or Christian?
(E) Hippolytus, De Antichristo 43, 46 47; In Danielem, 35, 50.
(F) Acts of Pilate 25 (Greek text in L. F. K. Tischendorf, Evangelia apocrypha [Leip-
zig: Mendelssohn, 1876] 331; Latin text, ibid. 404 5).
(G) Ephraem Syrus, Sermo de fine extremo (in T. J. Lamy [ed.], Sancti Ephraem Syri
hymni et sermones 3 [Mechlin: Dessain, 1889] 207 10).
(H) Ephraem Graecus, Sermo in adventum Domini (in J. S. Assemani [ed.], Sancti
Ephraem Syri opera omnia quae exstant [Rome: Salvioni, 1746], 3. 141 42).
(I) Ps.-Ephraem Latinus, Sermo de fine mundi (in C. P. Caspari, Briefe, Abhan-
dlungen und Predigten [Christiania: Malling, 1890] 219).
(J) Ps.-Hippolytus, De consummatione mundi 21 (in P. A. Lagarde [ed.], Hippolyti
Romani quae feruntur omnia graece [Leipzig: Teubner, 1858] 104 5).
(K) Ps.-Hippolytus, De consummatione mundi 29 (ibid., 111).
(L) Ps.-Methodius, Revelationes 14 (Greek and Latin) (Greek text in A. Vassiliev,
Anecdota graeco-byzantina [Moscow: Imperial University, 1893] 38; Latin text
in E. Sackur, Sibiyllinische Texte und Forschungen [Halle: Niemeyer, 1898],
95 96).
(M) Visio Danielis (Greek) (in A. Vassiliev, Anecdota, 43).
(N) Ps.-Methodius, Révélations 6 (Syriac) (tr. in F. Naum, Révélations et légendes
[Paris: Imprimerie Nationale, 1917] 31).
(O) Syriac (Clementine) Apocalypse of Peter (tr. in E. Bratke, Handschriftliche
Überlieferung und Bruchstücke der arabisch-aethiopischen Petrus-Apoka-
lypse, ZWT 36/1 [1893] 471 72).
(P) Ethiopic (Clementine) Apocalypse of Peter (tr. in E. Bratke, Handschriftliche
Überlieferung, 483).
(Q) Latin Tiburtine Sibyl (in E. Sackur, Sibyllinische Texte, 186).
(R) Greek Tiburtine Sibyl (in P. S. Alexander, The Oracle of Baalbek [Dumbarton
Oaks Studies 10; Washington: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library, 1967] 22).
(S) Apocalypse of Ps.-Shenoute (in E. Amélineau, Mémoires publiés par les membres
de la mission archéologique française au Caire (1885 1886) 4/1 [Paris: Ernest
Leroux, 1888] 345).
(T) Bohairic History of Joseph 31 32 (tr. in F. Robinson, Coptic Apocryphal Gos-
pels [Texts and Studies 4/2; Cambridge: Cambridge University, 1896] 146 47;
Arabic in J. K. Thilo, Codex apocryphus Novi Testamenti [Leipzig: Vogel, 1832]
58 61).
(U) Apocalypse of Ps.-John 8 (in L. F. K. Tischendorf, Apocalypses apocryphae [Leip-
zig: Mendelssohn, 1866] 77).
(V) Syriac Apocalypse of Ezra (tr. in F. Baethgen, Beschreibung der syrischen
Handschrift Sachau 131 auf der königlichen Bibliothek zu Berlin, ZAW 6
[1886] 209).
(W) Adso, Libellus de Antichristo (in E. Sackur, Sibyllinische Texte, 111 12).
(Y) Adso, Libellus de Antichristo (longer text) (in PL 90: 1186).
Richard Bauckham,
The Jewish World around the New Testament,
Baker Academic, a division of Baker Publishing Group, © 2010. Used by permission.
2. The Martyrdom of Enoch and Elijah: Jewish or Christian? 5
4
Ps.-Hippolytus 21 adds John.
5
History of Joseph (Arabic) adds Schila and Tabitha.
6
Tertullian: They are reserved to die, so that they may extinguish Antichrist with
their blood.
7
There is a gap in the MS.
8
Tischendorf s Latin text das 3 ½ days; his Greek text 3 days.
9
Is is not quite clear that the Apocalypse of Elijah intends to describe an ascension:
They will raise cries of joy towards heaven, they will shine, and all the people and the
whole world will see them.
Richard Bauckham,
The Jewish World around the New Testament,
Baker Academic, a division of Baker Publishing Group, © 2010. Used by permission.
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Explicit quotation of Rev 11
Enoch and Elijah
Elijah and Enoch
witnesses
prophets
descend
fight Antichrist
preach repentance
plague enemies
expose Antichrist
on the altar
bodies lie unburied
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x
3 ½ days
3 days
4 days
in the streets of Jerusalem
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x
the great ciry
everyone sees them
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x
they rise
are raised by Michael and
Gabriel
renewed conflict with
Antichrist
ascend to heaven
in the sight of all
destroy Antichrist
Antichrist enraged
fights them
conquers them
kills them
6 2. The Martyrdom of Enoch and Elijah: Jewish or Christian?
The date and interrelationships of many of these texts have not been estab-
lished and cannot be on the basis of examining only this one element of the
eschatological traditions they share. But it is important to notice that none
of the texts F Y may be dated before the fourth century10 and many are
much later. Undoubtedly, eschatological traditions in early and medieval
Christianity were transmitted in relatively stable forms; the same apoca-
lyptic texts were frequently updated and adapted to new circumstances, and
late texts are therefore by no means worthless evidence of early tradition.
But they must nevertheless be used with care in attempts to investigate
the origins of traditions. Since it is rarely possible to prove that a tradition
did not exist at an earlier date than the evidence attests, the temptations to
project traditions further back than the evidence warrants must be painstak-
ingly resisted.
Of the pre-fourth-century texts, there is, of course, no doubt of the date
of Tertullian and Hippolytus. The Apocalypse of Peter dates from the early
second century, but we shall see that the Ethiopic version s reference to
Enoch and Elijah may not belong to the original apocalypse. The Apocalypse
of Elijah is even more problematic. It has commonly been regarded as a
third- or fourth-century Christian redaction of early Jewish material,11 and
most scholars have thought that its account of Enoch and Elijah is depend-
ent on the account of the two witnesses in Revelation 11,12 though perhaps
also embodying independent Jewish tradition. Jeremias thought that a
Jewish tradition of the martyrdom of Elijah could probably be discerned
beneath the Christian redaction,13 but much more confident of the Jewish
provenience of the work is J.-M. Rosenstiehl.14 He regards it as substantially
an Essene work of the first century b. c., expanded in chap. 2 by another
Jewish author of the third century a.d. Its account of the return of Enoch
and Elijah he regards as wholly Jewish and pre-Christian, related to Revela-
tion 11 only via a common source.
10
An earlier date for the Acts of Pilate has sometimes been advocated, but G. C.
O Ceallaigh ( Dating the Commentaries of Nicodemus, HTR 56 [1963] 21 58) has
demonstrated a terminus post quem at 555 for the earliest part (Part I) of the work. The
Descent into Hell (which includes chap. 25) is later.
11
E. Schürer, review of Steindorff s edition, TLZ 24 (1899) 7 8; W. Bousset, Beiträge
zur Geschichte der Eschatologie, ZKG 20 (1899) 103 12; H. Weinel, Die spätere
christliche Apokalyptik, EUCARISTHRION: Studien zur Religion und Literatur des
Alten und Neuen Testaments (Gunkel Festschrift; Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht,
1923), 2. 164 66.
12
E. g., D. Haugg, Die Zwei Zeugen: Eine exegetische Studie über Apok 11, 1 13
(NTAbh 17/1; Münster: Aschendorf, 1936) 94; M. Black, Servant of the Lord and Son of
Man, SJT 6 (1953) 10 n. 1; W. Wink, John the Baptist in the Gospel Tradition (SNTSMS 7;
London / New York: Cambridge University, 1968) 14 n. 1.
13
TDNT 2 (1964) 939 41.
14
L Apocalypse d Elie (Paris: Geuthner, 1972).
Richard Bauckham,
The Jewish World around the New Testament,
Baker Academic, a division of Baker Publishing Group, © 2010. Used by permission.
2. The Martyrdom of Enoch and Elijah: Jewish or Christian? 7
Rosenstiehl s arguments do not carry complete conviction.15 A final con-
clusion as to the date of the Apocalypse of Elijah can only be reached after
a fuller study of the traditions it contains, and since the present inquiry is
part of such study the question of date must be regarded as still open. Ini-
tially, however, we may notice from the table that the Apocalypse of Elijah s
account of Enoch and Elijah obviously has close affinities not only with
Revelation 11 but also with the Christian tradition of the fourth century
onwards. These affinities provide the obvious indications of date, and we
shall require strong evidence for dating as early as the first century b.c. a
tradition which is otherwise attested for the fourth century and later but
not before. It should also be noticed that the undoubtedly strongly Jewish
character of the Apocalypse of Elijah need not mean that it always preserves
pre-Christian Jewish tradition. Some of its striking points of contact with
Jewish apocalyptic are not with extant pre-Christian apocalyptic but with
the so-called Neo-Hebraic apocalyptic of the Christian era.16 It is probable
that a two-way traffic in apocalyptic traditions between Judaism and Chris-
tianity continued long after the first century,17 and not beyond possibility
that a Jewish tradition of the martyrdom of Enoch and Elijah could have
resulted from the influence of Christian traditions based on Revelation 11.
J. Munck, in a survey of many of the texts included in the table, argued,
against Bousset and Jeremias, that there was no Christian tradition of the
return of Enoch and Elijah independent of Revelation 11 and therefore
no evidence of a pre-Christian tradition of their martyrdom. Revelation
11, subjected to a mistaken exegesis by such writers as Hippolytus and
Ps.-Hippolytus, gave rise to the whole Christian tradition of the return of
Enoch and Elijah.18 In his major contention that the martyrdom of Enoch
and Elijah is a tradition deriving from exegesis of Revelation 11, we shall see
that Munck was probably correct. But it is less likely that all aspects of the
tradition derive from Revelation 11.
An expectation of the return of Enoch and Elijah is attested in pre-
Christian Judaism, though much more rarely than the expectation of Elijah
alone. 4 Ezra 6:26 expects the appearance of those who had not died (cf.
7:28; 13:52), but doubtless means not only Enoch and Elijah, for Jewish
writers of this period exalted others (Moses, Baruch, Ezra) to the privilege
of excaping death. But 1 Enoch 90:31 does seem to refer to the return of
15
See some critical comments in a review by P. M. Parvis, JTS 24 (1973) 588 89.
16
This is especially true of the description of Antichrist: see J.-M. Rosenstiehl, Le
portrait de l Antichrist, Pseudépigraphes de l Ancien Testament et manuscrits de la Mer
Morte (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1967), 1. 45 60.
17
Cf. M. Buttenwieser, Outline of the Neo-Hebraic Apocalyptic Literature (Cincinnati:
Jennings and Pye, 1901) 1.
18
Petrus und Paulus in der Offenbarung Johannis (Copenhagen: Rosenkilde og Bagger,
1950) 81 118.
Richard Bauckham,
The Jewish World around the New Testament,
Baker Academic, a division of Baker Publishing Group, © 2010. Used by permission.
8 2. The Martyrdom of Enoch and Elijah: Jewish or Christian?
Enoch and Elijah specifically, probably at a period when only these two
were thought to have escaped death. The survival of this tradition in Chris-
tianity and its lack of attestation in Judaism ought perhaps to be associated
with the popularity of the Enoch literature in some early Christian circles
and its corresponding lapse from favor in Judaism. Certainly early Christian
writers tended to regard Enoch and Elijah as the only two who had escaped
death (Irenaeus, Adv. haer. 5.5.1; cf. 4 Ezra 1:39; Apocalypse of Paul 20).
If early Christian writers took over from Judaism the expectation that
Enoch and Elijah would return to earth before the Judgment, it is not so
clear that they took over specific functions that the two were to perform.
In 1 Enoch 90:31 they appear to have no function. Among Christian writ-
ers Hippolytus at least seems to have used no extra-scriptural traditions
except the mere expectation of Enoch and Elijah s return. His accounts are
closely dependent on Revelation 11 and he does little more than identify
the two witnesses as Enoch and Elijah: his explanation that they are to be
martyred because they will not give glory to Antichrist (De Antichristo
47) is surely an intelligent deduction from the text rather than a sign of the
influence of independent tradition. But it is noteworthy that he apparently
found it unnecessary to argue for his identification of the witnesses: he cites
Mal 4:5 6 for the return of Elijah but seems to regard as unquestionable the
identification of the second witness as Enoch. Arguably, once one witness
had been identified as Elijah, Enoch s claim to be the other was obvious, for
these were the two men who had not died. But it is more probable that an
existing tradition of the return of Enoch with Elijah influenced Hippolytus
exegesis. Lactantius and Commodian show attempts to interpret Revelation
11 in the light of an alternative tradition of the return of Elijah alone,19 and
patristic authors who gave close attention to the text of Revelation 11 were
quite capable, like modern scholars, of finding that the characteristics of
the two witnesses in 11:5 6 recall Elijah and Moses and Jeremiah but not
Enoch.20 The identification with Elijah and Enoch was not obvious from
the text, and its prevalence in the early church must probably be explained
by reference to an independent tradition of the return of Enoch and Elijah
in the light of which Revelation 11 was interpreted.
The tradition in most of the texts other than Hippolytus goes further than
naming Enoch and Elijah in its divergence from Revelation 11. At least from
the time of Ephraem Syrus, the tradition seems to assume an independent
19
Lactantius (Inst. 7,17) and Commodian (Carmen de duobus populis 833 64) are both
patently dependent on Rev 11:3 13, but Lactantius speaks only of one figure, Elijah, and
Commodian speaks first of Elijah alone (833, 839, 850) and then of prophetae (856 62).
The tradition of the return of Elijah alone also appears in Justin, Dial. 49; Sib. Or. 2:187;
Tertullian, De resurrectione 22; De anima 25.
20
Hilarius, In Matt. 20:10 (PL 9.1032); Victorinus, In Apoc. 11:5 (PL 5.334).
Richard Bauckham,
The Jewish World around the New Testament,
Baker Academic, a division of Baker Publishing Group, © 2010. Used by permission.
2. The Martyrdom of Enoch and Elijah: Jewish or Christian? 9
life of its own, so that the story as told in most of the texts bears little resem-
blance to the story of the two witnesses, and only in a few cases (J, W) does
it appear that the writer himself made any reference to the text of Revelation
11. In terms of the motifs listed in the table, there are two accounts (C, N)
which have no point of contact at all with Revelation 11, and one (H) which
coincides only in describing the two as prophets. All the others agree with
Revelation 11 at least in recounting the martyrdom, but six of these (D, L,
M, T, U, V) coincide with Revelation 11 only at this point, and three (G,
P, R) only at this point and at the resurrection. It is true that most of the
accounts are much briefer than Rev 11:3 13; but this only highlights the
significance in the tradition of recurrent motifs which are not found at all
in Revelation 11. The idea that the purpose of Enoch and Elijah s mission is
to expose Antichrist s deceits is found in sixteen of the texts (B, C, G, H, I,
J, K, L, N, O, P, S, T, U, W, Y), while the motifs of Antichrist s rage against
Enoch and Elijah occur in seven texts (B, G, L, M, O, R, S). Other features
clearly not derived from Revelation 11 are found occasionally: Enoch and
Elijah come to fight Antichrist (B, F, N, R), they are put to death on the altar
(U, V), they are raised by Michael and Gabriel (G, P), their conflict with
Antichrist continues after their resurrection (B, S), and they finally destroy
Antichrist (B, N, S). The tradition is by no means uniform, and the omission
of some motifs is doubtless often determined by the nature of the context
or a desire for brevity; but most of the texts given in the table recount the
return of Enoch and Elijah in the context of a sequential prophecy of the
events of the last days and may, therefore, be expected to convey what was
regarded as the main point of the tradition. Only a few of the texts (D, F,
T) are in the nature of more incidental allusions. Therefore the degree of
divergence from Relevation 11 and the recurrent prominence of motifs not
derived from Revelation 11 is striking.
The point of most consistent divergence is the purpose of the mission of
Enoch and Elijah. The two witnesses in Rev 11:3 13 are preachers of repent-
ance; they are not represented as preaching against Antichrist specifically;
they encounter Antichrist only when their witness is completed. In the
Enoch and Elijah tradition, almost without exception,21 the two prophets are
sent against Antichrist, after his reign has begun. This may mean that they
are the instruments of his destruction (B, D, N, S), but it most commonly
means that they expose him as an imposter. They denounce him either to his
face or to the people or both, and this is what provokes his rage and their
21
The exceptions are Hippolytus, who follows Revelation 11 closely; the Latin
Tiburtine Sibyl (Q), where the mission of Enoch and Elijah is to announce the Lord s
coming ; and the Syriac Apocalypse of Ezra (V), which has no reference to the purpose of
their coming. Adso and thence the whole Western medieval tradition gives them the
additional role of converting the Jews to Christianity.
Richard Bauckham,
The Jewish World around the New Testament,
Baker Academic, a division of Baker Publishing Group, © 2010. Used by permission.
10 2. The Martyrdom of Enoch and Elijah: Jewish or Christian?
martyrdom. The fact that some accounts (B, G, H, K, O) give details of the
verbal exchange between Antichrist and the two prophets illustrates the
prominence of this theme in the tradition. Sometimes the people at large are
convinced by this exposure of the false Messiah (L), sometimes the faithful
are encouraged or reclaimed (I, W, Y), sometimes few believe (H).
It is clear, therefore, that Bousset was correct in drawing attention to the
characteristics of the Enoch and Elijah tradition which distinguish it from
Revelation 11. But his conclusion, that such texts as K, L, U, V represent
substantially a pre-Christian Jewish tradition uninfluenced by Revelation
11, was too hasty.22 According to Bousset the pre-Christian tradition was
that Enoch and Elijah would return to denounce Antichrist and would be
slain by him. The motif of resurrection after three days he regarded as origi-
nating in Revelation 11 and appearing only in texts influenced by Revelation
11.23 In fact, it is very doubtful whether the resurrection can be regarded as
a secondary addition to a tradition which already included the martyrdom.
It seems, on the contrary, that the resurrection has dropped out of the tra-
dition in those texts which conclude the story with martyrdom, just as the
ascencion has been omitted by almost all the texts which include the resur-
rection. There are some texts evidently dependent on Revelation 11 which
omit both resurrection and ascension (E, J, W), and in many cases the mo-
tive for such an omission is clear. In most of the texts the account of the last
days has been compressed so that the general resurrection follows swiftly
upon the martyrdom of Enoch and Elijah, and their individual resurrection
becomes redundant.24 In other cases, (D, T) the allusion to the tradition is
in order to make a particular point which depends on the martyrdom, not
the resurrection.25 If there was a pre-Christian tradition, it must either have
included both martyrdom and resurrection or have included neither.
Those who, like Rosenstiehl, regard the account in the Apocalypse of
Elijah as Jewish will argue that there was a Jewish tradition of both martyr-
dom and resurrection. It is much more probable that both features entered
the tradition from Revelation 11. Apart from the debatable case of the
Apocalypse of Elijah and the brief reference of Tertullian, the martyrdom
is attested before the fourth century only in Hippolytus, who quite clearly
derived it from Revelation 11. Thus two centuries before the texts from
which Bousset constructed a pre-christian tradition, Christians were iden-
22
Antichrist Legend, 208 9.
23
Ibid., 209 10.
24
It is interesting to note that in Acts of Pilate 25 the resurrection and ascension of
Enoch and Elijah are related in the language of 1 Thes 4:17, thereby assimilating them to
the general resurrection and rapture of the saints.
25
Munck has argued at length that there was never a tradition of martyrdom without
resurrection (Petrus und Paulus, 100 109).
Richard Bauckham,
The Jewish World around the New Testament,
Baker Academic, a division of Baker Publishing Group, © 2010. Used by permission.
2. The Martyrdom of Enoch and Elijah: Jewish or Christian? 11
tifying Enoch and Elijah with the two witnesses of Revelation 11. It would
be surprising if the later tradition showed no influence from Revelation 11,
and such influence is surely responsible for the near unanimity of the texts
in expecting the martyrdom of Enoch and Elijah.
A more profitable approach to the question of pre-Christian tradition is
to examine those three texts (C, H, N) which are remarkable for not men-
tioning the martyrdom.26 These texts are the most dissimilar from Revela-
tion 11 and the most likely to reflect entirely independent tradition. One of
them, chap. 2 of the Ethiopic version of the Apocalypse of Peter, would be
the earliest Christian reference to the return of Enoch and Elijah, if it could
be shown to be part of the original early second-century apocalypse. But
the Ethiopic text of chap. 2 is suspect. A general comparison of the Ethiopic
of the Apocalypse of Peter with the Greek fragments and the patristic cita-
tions suggests that, while on the whole the Ethiopic presents the original
contents of the Apocalypse ,27 in detail it is scarcely a reliable witness to the
original text. Moreover, the text of chap. 2 shows some degree of confusion.
One part represents the house of Israel as following the false messiahs; an-
other represents them as suffering martyrdom at the hands of the deceiver.
The transition from the several false messiahs to the one Antichrist is oddly
abrupt; and in favor of the originality of the former motif rather than the
latter may be cited chap. 1 of the Ethiopic and vv. 1 2 of the Akhimimic
text, which must represent at least a summary of this part of the apocalypse.
In this case the Apocalypse of Peter belongs with 2 Peter and the synoptic
apocalypse in knowing of false prophets and messianic pretenders of the last
days, rather than of the single Antichrist of 2 Thessalonians. The parable
of the fig-tree and its explanation would then have been introduced around
an original prophecy of false messiahs who would lead the people astray.
The introduction of Enoch and Elijah at the end of chap. 2 seems almost an
afterthought, unnecessary to the interpretation of the parable and perhaps
intended to clear up the difficulty of the preceding text: it is the preaching
of Enoch and Elijah which will enlighten the Jews as to the true nature of
Antichrist and so make them martyrs.
26
Not only do all the other texts in the table refer to the martyrdom, but also other
texts which were not sufficiently important to be included: Philippus Solitarius, Dioptra
3.10; John of Damascus, De fide orthodoxa 4.20; Honorius of Autun, Elucidarium 3.9. The
only other example that I know of referring to the return of Enoch and Elijah without the
mention of their martyrdom is in the Arabic (Clementine) Apocalypse of Peter (A. Min-
gana, Woodbrooke Studies [Cambridge: Heffer, 1931], 3. 359). But the martyrdom may be
included in the section Mingana omits (p. 360), as it evidently is in the version described
by Bousset (Antichrist Legend, 74).
27
C. Maurer in E. Hennecke, New Testament Apocrypha (ed. R. McL. Wilson; Lon-
don: Lutterworth, 1965), 2. 665.
Richard Bauckham,
The Jewish World around the New Testament,
Baker Academic, a division of Baker Publishing Group, © 2010. Used by permission.
12 2. The Martyrdom of Enoch and Elijah: Jewish or Christian?
This is a conjectural explanation of the text, but it illustrates the difficulty
of using it as evidence that the tradition of Enoch s and Elijah s return to
denounce Antichrist was already known in the early second century. On
the other hand, the singular absence of reference to the martyrdom may
indicate an early (though not necessarily second-century) tradition. It might
be understood contextually, if the point of the reference to Enoch and Elijah
is to explain how the Jews are to recognize Antichrist as an imposter. But
even so the context of reference to martyrdom was one in which other writ-
ers would not be able to resist adding that Enoch and Elijah too would seal
their witness in blood. The point is well illustrated by comparing this text
with a parallel one in the later Ethiopic (Clementine) Apocalypse of Peter
(P), which is certainly dependent on it:
(C) (P)
& he will kill with the sword and there & they will be beheaded and become
shall be many martyrs. Then shall the martyrs. In that day will be fulfilled what
boughs of the fig-tree, that is the house is said in the Gospel: when the branches
of Israel, sprout, and there shall be many of the fig-tree are full of sap, know that
martyrs by his hand: they shall be killed the time of the harvest is at hand. Shoots
and become martyrs. Enoch and Elijah of the fig-tree are those righteous men
will be sent to instruct them that this called, who become martyrs at his hand,
is the deceiver who must come into the and the angels will bring them to the joy,
world and do signs and wonders in order and no hair of their head will be lost.
to deceive. And therefore shall they that Then Enoch and Elijah will descend.
are slain by his hand be martyrs and shall They will preach and put to shame that
be reckoned among the good and right- tyrannical enemy of righteousness and
eous martyrs who have pleased God in son of lies. Then they will be beheaded,
their life. and Michael and Gabriel will raise them
up and bring them into the garden of joy,
and no drop of his (sic) blood will fall on
the ground&
In the second text the preaching of Enoch and Elijah against Antichrist is
retained, but no longer serves to make martyrs of anyone but Enoch and
Elijah themselves. The parallelism of language between the account of the
martyrs and the account of Enoch and Elijah shows the extent to which
they are here portrayed as examples of martyrdom, the very last of all the
martyrs. This was the dominant trend of the tradition.
The Apocalypse of Peter may thus be evidence that the tradition of the re-
turn of Enoch and Elijah to denounce Antichrist first existed independently of
the tradition of the martyrdom. The same early tradition may also survive in
Ephraem Graecus (H), where the martyrdom is not mentioned. The process
of assimilation to Revelation 11 can be seen rather clearly in Ps.-Hippolytus:
in chap. 21 (J) the motif of exposing Antichrist has been introduced into an
Richard Bauckham,
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Baker Academic, a division of Baker Publishing Group, © 2010. Used by permission.
2. The Martyrdom of Enoch and Elijah: Jewish or Christian? 13
account drawn from Hippolytus and dependent on Revelation 11; in chap. 29
(K) the motif of martyrdom has been added to an account of the mission of
Enoch and Elijah very similar to that in Ephraem Graecus.28
The Syriac version of Ps.-Methodius (N) seems to represent another
form of the tradition which did not include the martyrdom, a form in
which Enoch and Elijah come to destroy Antichrist. It is a quite distinctive
account:
& when he comes to Jerusalem, Enoch and Elijah will leave the land of life; they
will rise up against him, they will withstand him and he will curse them. When he
sees them, he will melt like salt in the presence of water, and he will be the first to be
punished, before all men, together with the demons who entered into him&
The only close parallel to this account is at the end of the Apocalypse of
Elijah, where Enoch and Elijah descend a second time from heaven, and
pursue the Son of Iniquity and kill him, without his being able to speak.
In that day he will be destroyed before them like ice destroyed by the
fire& The destruction of Antichrist by Enoch and Elijah then reappears
in the Apocalypse of Ps.-Shenoute (S), which is dependent on the Apocalypse
of Elijah. Perhaps also to be connected with this tradition is Tertullian s
statement that they are reserved to die, so that they may extinguish An-
tichrist with their blood (morituri reservantur, ut Antichristum sanguine
suo extinguant). This is a reinterpretation of the destruction of Antichrist
in terms of the martyrological idea that the death of the martyr rebounds
in judgment on the persecutor and thereby secures his destruction. It is
possibly a reinterpretation independent of Revelation 11 but more prob-
ably Tertullian, like Hippolytus, identified Enoch and Elijah with the two
witnesses and understood their death in the light of Rev 12:11, 15:2 as a
conquest of Antichrist.
This motif of the destruction of Antichrist by Enoch and Elijah is likely
to be of Jewish origin, as is also the alternative tradition of his destruction by
the archangel Michael, which found its way from Judaism into the Christian
tradition:29 the elimination of the last great enemy of the people of God was
a messianic function in both Jewish and Christian apocalyptic.30 A Christian
author is unlikely to have originated a tradition in which Enoch and Elijah
are permitted in this way to usurp the role of Christ.31 But the messianic
28
For the relationship of Ps.-Hippolytus to Ephraem Graecus, see W. Bousset, Anti-
christ Legend, 41 42.
29
See W. Bousset, Antichrist Legend, 227 31; M. Buttenwieser, Outlines, 43; Jewish
Encyclopedia, 8. 536 7.
30
Jewish: 2 Apoc. Bar. 40:1 2; M. Buttenwieser, Outlines, 31, 35, 38. Christian: 2 Thes
2:8; Rev 19:11 21; W. Bousset, Antichrist Legend, 224 25.
31
This is undoubtedly why it appears rarely in the Christian sources. Ps.-Shenoute
(S), which is dependent on the Apocalypse of Elijah, retains the motif, but the Greek Ti-
Richard Bauckham,
The Jewish World around the New Testament,
Baker Academic, a division of Baker Publishing Group, © 2010. Used by permission.
14 2. The Martyrdom of Enoch and Elijah: Jewish or Christian?
expectations of first-century Judaism were more varied and could easily
have accommodated a tradition in which Enoch and Elijah were a pair of
messianic figures appearing at the end to combat and destroy Antichrist.
Such a tradition has not survived in extant Jewish texts, but a messianic role
for Elijah is attested,32 while Enoch in the Similitudes of Enoch assumes the
messianic functions of the Son of Man.
We may now attempt a classification of the traditions:
Ia. The return of Enoch and Elijah (purpose unspecified): 1 Enoch 90:31.
Ib. The return of Enoch and Elijah as the two witnesses of Revelation 11: Hip-
polytus (E).
Ia. The return of Enoch and Elijah to destroy Antichrist: Syriac Ps.-Methodius
(N).
IIb. The return of Enoch and Elijah to destroy Antichrist by suffering martyrdom:
Tertullian (D).
IIIa. The return of Enoch and Elijah to expose Antichrist: Apocalypse of Peter (C),
Ephraem Graecus (H)
IIIb. The return of Enoch and Elijah to expose Antichrist and suffer martyrdom:
Ps.-Hippolytus 29 (K) etc.
Ia and probably IIa are pre-Christian Jewish traditions. IIIa may also be a
Jewish tradition, though we cannot be sure. The martyrdom appears only in
the secondary development of each, probably in each case under the influ-
ence of Revelation 11. Certainly there is no evidence that this development
had already taken place in Judaism. The majority of the texts belong to IIIb,
with greater or less assimilation to Revelation 11.
The tendency of many of the texts is to emphasize the martyrological
aspects of the tradition, not only by taking over the martyrdom motif itself
from Revelation 11 but also by incorporating additional martyrological
features such as Antichrist s rage (B, G, L, M, O, R, S)33 and the sacrificial
understanding of martyrdom attested by death on the altar (U, V).34 The
tendency to represent Enoch and Elijah primarily as exemplary martyrs
of the last days is illustrated by the Ethiopic (Clementine) Apocalypse of
Peter (P), quoted above, and is also to be seen in the account in the Apoca-
lypse of Elijah, where Enoch and Elijah appear among a sequence of martyrs
burtine Sibyl (R), which is also dependent on the Apocalypse of Elijah, replaces it with the
intervention of Christ himself, who raises Enoch and Elijah and then fights and destroys
Antichrist.
32
TDNT 2 (1964) 931; Str-B, 4. 782 84; J. A. T. Robinson, Elijah, John and Jesus: An
Essay in Detection, NTS 4 (1957 58) 263 81, esp. pp. 268 70.
33
The rage of the persecutor is a stock feature of martyrdom stories: Dan 3:13, 19;
11:30; Bel 8; 2 Macc 7:39; 4 Macc 8:2; 9:10; Acts 7:54; H. Musurillo, The Acts of the Chris-
tian Martyrs (Oxford: Clarendom, 1972) 22, 26, 54, 66, 190.
34
The same understanding is found in the Apocalypse of Elijah, when Antichrist
throws the blood of the martyr Tabitha on the temple and when the Sixty Righteous Men
are burned on the altar.
Richard Bauckham,
The Jewish World around the New Testament,
Baker Academic, a division of Baker Publishing Group, © 2010. Used by permission.
2. The Martyrdom of Enoch and Elijah: Jewish or Christian? 15
comprising Tabitha, Enoch, and Elijah, and the Sixty Righteous Men, and
where the martyrological aspect of the tradition is strongly emphasized by
the details of the narrative, including those which it shares with Revela-
tion 11.
A narrative of idealized martyrs of the end-time can be paralleled from
pre-Christian Jewish apocalyptic: the incident of Taxo and his seven sons
in chap. 9 of the Assumption of Moses. But it was a Christian innovation to
cast Enoch and Elijah in this role. Seen in the light of the rest of the evidence
for the Enoch and Elijah tradition, the Apocalypse of Elijah has the charac-
teristics of a relatively late version, taking up varied elements of eschatologi-
cal tradition and elaborating them into an extended narrative of the reign of
Antichrist. By means of incorporating two distinct forms of the tradition of
Enoch and Elijah (IIIb and IIa), the Apocalypse of Elijah was able to relate
two distinct comings of Enoch and Elijah: first to denounce Antichrist and
suffer martyrdom and then a second time at the end to destroy him. Pos-
sibly the second belonged to an original Jewish Apocalypse of Elijah, but the
first may be credibly attributed to the third- or fourth-century Christian
redaction which was responsible for the present form of the work.35
To conclude: the Christian tradition of the return of Enoch and Elijah
provides no evidence of a pre-Christian Jewish tradition of their martyr-
dom. The martyrdom is a Christian innovation deriving via Rev 11:3 13
from the Christian innovation of the martyrdom of the Messiah.
Additional Note A:
More texts
Since completing the article that is reprinted here as the above chapter, I have
come across a variety of other Christian36 apocalyptic works that contain
the tradition of the martyrdom of Enoch and Elijah. They are all relatively
late texts and they do not suggest that any modifications of my argument in
the article are needed, but they are listed here and tabulated in the same way
as the my original set of texts in order to supplement the evidence:
(A1) Arabic Sibyl A (E. Y. Ebied and M. J. L. Young, An Unrecorded Arabic Version
of a Sibylline Prophecy, Orientalia Christiana Periodica 43 [1977] 279 307).
(B1) Arabic Sibyl B (E. Y. Ebied and M. J. L. Young, A Newly-Discovered Version
of the Arabic Sibylline Prophecy, Oriens Christiana 60 [1976] 83 94).
35
I have discussed the account of Enoch and Elijah in the Apocalypse of Elijah more
fully in Enoch and Elijah in the Coptic Apocalypse of Elijah (chapter 3 below).
36
The Falasha Apocalypse of Ezra, like other Falasha literature, is a de-christianized
version of an originally Christian text.
Richard Bauckham,
The Jewish World around the New Testament,
Baker Academic, a division of Baker Publishing Group, © 2010. Used by permission.
16 2. The Martyrdom of Enoch and Elijah: Jewish or Christian?
(C1) Greek Apocalypse of Daniel (Diegesis Danielis) 14:1 15/14:1 12 (Klaus Berger,
Die griechische Daniel-Diegese [SPB 27; Leiden: Brill, 1976] 18, 144 148; G. T.
Zervos, Apocalypse of Daniel [Ninth Century A. D.]: A New Translation and
Introduction, in James Charlesworth [ed.], The Old Testament Pseudepigra-
pha, vol. 1 [London: Darton, Longman & Todd, 1983] 755 770).37
(D1) Apocalypse of Leo of Constantinople 21 (Riccardo Maisano, L Apocalisse
Apocrifa di Leone di Constantinopoli [NobiltÄ… dello Spirito NS 3; Naples:
Morano, 1975] 98 99).
(E1) Oracles of Leo the Wise 5.36 39 (E. Legrand, Les Oracles de Léon le Sage, La
Bataille de Varna, La Prise de Constantinople: Poëmes en grecs vulgaires [Col-
lection de Monuments pour servir Ä… l étude de la langue néo-hellénique, NS 5;
Paris: Maissonneuve/Athens: Coromilas, 1875] 49).
(F1) Andreas Salos Apocalypse, 286 289 short text (L. Rydén, The Andreas Salos
Apocalypse: Greek Text, Translation, and Commentary, Dumbarton Oaks
Papers 28 [1974] 197 261, here 212 213, 223 224).
(G1) Andreas Salos Apocalypse, 286 289 long text (Rydén, The Andreas Salos
Apocalypse, 212, 223 224 n.).
(H1) Two Sorrows of the Kingdom of Heaven 8 (Máire Herbert and Martin McNa-
mara, Irish Biblical Apocrypha [Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1989] 21).
(I1) Karshuni Testament of our Lord Jesus 6 (J. Ziadé, Un testament de N. S. con-
cernant les invasions des Mongols, ROC 21 [1918 19] 261 273, 433 444, here
443; Juan Pedro Monferrer Sala, Apócrifos Árabes Cristianos [Madrid: Trotta,
2003] 240 241).
(J1) Coptic Vision of Daniel 80 81 (Otto Meinardus, A Commentary on the
XIVth Vision of Daniel: According to the Coptic Version, Orientalia Chris-
tiana Periodica 32 [1966] 394 449, here 447).38
(K1) Falasha Apocalypse of Ezra (J. Halévy, TáÄ…zâza Sanbat [Commandements du
Sabbat] accompagnés de six autres écrits pseudo-épigraphiques admits par les
Falachas ou Juifs d Abyssinie [BEHE.H 137; Paris, 1902] 195).
This list is still far from exhaustive. Like other apocalyptic traditions this
one made its way far and wide in a variety of Christian traditions. For some
further examples, see J. T. Milik, The Books of Enoch: Aramaic Fragments
of Qumrân Cave 4 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1976) 119 123; Berger, Die
griechische Daniel-Diegese, table facing page 148; Richard Kenneth Em-
merson, Antichrist in the Middle Ages (Manchester: Manchester University
Press, 1981) 95 101, 136 140; David Dumville, Biblical Apocrypha and
the Early Irish: A Preliminary Investigation, Proceedings of the Royal Irish
Academy 73C (1973) 299 338, here 308 311.
37
On this apocalypse, see Lorenzo DiTommaso, The Book of Daniel and the Apocry-
phal Daniel Literature (SVTP 20; Leiden: Brill, 2005) 130 141, 356 359.
38
On this apocalypse, see DiTommaso, The Book of Daniel, 179 184, 456 458.
Richard Bauckham,
The Jewish World around the New Testament,
Baker Academic, a division of Baker Publishing Group, © 2010. Used by permission.
2. The Martyrdom of Enoch and Elijah: Jewish or Christian? 17
A1 B1 C1 D1 E1 F1 G1 H1 I1 J1 K1
Explicit quotation of Rev 11
Enoch and Elijah x x x39 x40 x x
(x)41 (x)42 (x)43
Elijah and Enoch x44 x
witnesses
prophets (x)45 x
descend
fight Antichrist x
preach repentance
plague enemies x
expose Antichrist x x x x x x x x
Antichrist enraged x
fights them x
conquers them
kills them x x x x x x x x x x x
on the altar x x x x
bodies lie unburied x x
3 ½ days (2½) x x x
3 days x
4 days
in the streets of Jerusalem x x x
the great ciry x
everyone sees them x
they rise x x x x x
are raised by Michael and
Gabriel
renewed conflict with
Antichrist
ascend to heaven x x
in the sight of all
destroy Antichrist
39
With John the evangelist.
40
With John the evangelist.
41
Two unnamed men.
42
Two unnamed men from heaven (Enoch and Elijah) and one unnamed man from
earth (John the evangelist).
43
Two unnamed men.
44
With John the evangelist.
45
Here they are called preachers (kflruke") of the truth .
Richard Bauckham,
The Jewish World around the New Testament,
Baker Academic, a division of Baker Publishing Group, © 2010. Used by permission.
5
18 2. The Martyrdom of Enoch and Elijah: Jewish or Christian?
Additional Note B:
A pre-Christian Jewish tradition
of the return of Enoch and Elijah?
In the first paragraph of the chapter I said that Wilhelm Bousset in 1895
sifted early Christian traditions about Antichrist to reconstruct a pre-
Christian Jewish tradition which included the return of Enoch and Elijah
to denounce Antichrist and to suffer martyrdom. This statement was mis-
taken.46 Bousset s purpose in the whole book was to reconstruct a tradition
about Antichrist that early Christians inherited from Jewish sources.47 I
must have assumed that he considered the return of Enoch and Elijah to de-
nounce Antichrist and to suffer martyrdom, which he treats at some length
in the course of working through the whole reconstructed narrative,48 to be
part of this pre-Christian Jewish tradition. In fact, however, at this point he
draws some distinctions between the original Jewish tradition and the form
in which it appears in early Christian literature. He states that the original
Jewish expectation, as is still to be seen in the Gospels,49 was for the return
of Elias alone (Malachi iv.1). 50 He notes that this expectation of Elijah
alone is found also in the second book of the Sibylline Oracles (2.187), in
Justin (Dial. 49, where it is attributed to the Jew Trypho), in Lactantius and
Commodian,51 and in the later Jewish apocalyptic literature. After showing
the way in which the existing tradition about Enoch and Elijah was adapted
by the author of Revelation 11, he concludes:
Still, with all this, one point remains unexplained the origin of the idea of the two
witnesses. There can scarcely be a doubt that it cannot have emanated from a Jewish
source. Here the return of Elias is expected, while the expectation of the two wit-
nesses would seem to have never been more generally diffused, as is shown by the
later Jewish tradition.52
Bousset s view seems to be that in Jewish tradition Elijah alone was expected,
but that in a Christian version of the tradition, pre-dating Revelation, Enoch
46
This was pointed out to me in a personal letter from Barry Blackburn, dated 23
May 1979.
47
For recent critical assessments of Bousset s overall thesis about the Antichrist tradi-
tion, see Gregory C. Jenks, The Origins and Early Development of the Antichrist Myth
(BZNW 59; Berlin/New York: de Gruyter, 1991) 5 13; G. W. Lorein, The Antichrist
Theme in the Intertestamental Period (JSPSup 44; London/New York: T. & T. Clark
International [Continuum], 2003) 1 7, 237.
48
Wilhelm Bousset, The Antichrist Tradition, tr. A. H. Keane (London: Hutchinson,
1896) 203 11.
49
Mark 9:11 13.
50
Bousset, The Antichrist Tradition, 207.
51
See n. 19 above.
52
Bousset, The Antichrist Tradition, 210.
Richard Bauckham,
The Jewish World around the New Testament,
Baker Academic, a division of Baker Publishing Group, © 2010. Used by permission.
2. The Martyrdom of Enoch and Elijah: Jewish or Christian? 19
was added. In addition, he states clearly that the author of Revelation was
personally responsible for the incident about the resurrection of the wit-
nesses after the third day, since this is clearly a Christian contribution53
(but why should it not have been already part of the Christian tradition that
added Enoch to Elijah?). What is wholly unclear is whether Bousset thinks
that the role of denouncing Antichrist and consequent martyrdom at his
hands were already to attributed to Elijah in Jewish tradition or belonged
to that Christian redaction of the tradition that added the second figure,
Enoch.
If Bousset s view were the latter, then he was in essential agreement
with my own argument in the chapter above. However, he was mistaken
in supposing that the idea of the eschatological return of Enoch and Elijah
together had no non-Christian Jewish source. It is true that it is not to be
found in rabbinic literature or in the medieval Jewish apocalypses that have
parallels to many of the other traditions about Antichrist in the Christian
apocalypses. Its absence from rabbinic literature may be due to the lack of
a scriptural basis for expecting the return of Enoch, by contrast with the
explicit prophecy relating to Elijah (Mal 4:1). The medieval Jewish apoca-
lypses, on the other hand, reflect non-scriptural traditions abundantly. The
absence of Enoch from them is perhaps to be attributed to the controversial
nature of the figure of Enoch in Jewish tradition from the second century ce
onwards. In any case, there is a pre-Christian Jewish reference to the return
of Enoch and Elijah in a text Bousset neglected: 1 Enoch 90:31.54
This text deserves a little more attention than I gave it in the chapter
above. It belongs to the Animal Apocalypse of 1 Enoch 85 90, which dates
from the Maccabean period. In a work attributed to Enoch and in view of
Enoch s assumption to heaven without dying (Gen 5:24; 1 Enoch 87:2 4), it
is not very surprising to find this expansion of the already existing belief that
Elijah would return at the end (Mal 4:1; Sir 48:10). 1 Enoch 90:31 reads:
After that, those three who were clothed in white and who had taken hold of me
[Enoch] by my hand, who had previously brought me up (with the hand of that ram
also taking hold of me), set me down among those sheep before the judgment took
place.55
The three are the angels who had taken Enoch up to heaven at the end of
his earthly life (87:2 4). The ram is Elijah, whose assumption to paradise
53
Bousset, The Antichrist Tradition, 210.
54
There is a useful table of the sources used by Bousset and their contributions to
his reconstructed Antichrist tradition in Jenks, The Origins, 8 9, while Jenks, The Ori-
gins,10, lists Jewish works of the Second Temple period not used by Bousset, including
1 Enoch.
55
Translation from George W. E. Nickelsburg and James C. VanderKam, 1 Enoch: A
New Translation (Minneapolis: Fortress, 2004) 134.
Richard Bauckham,
The Jewish World around the New Testament,
Baker Academic, a division of Baker Publishing Group, © 2010. Used by permission.
20 2. The Martyrdom of Enoch and Elijah: Jewish or Christian?
has also been described earlier in the Animal Apocalypse (89:52), which
makes it clear that Elijah joined Enoch in paradise. No other assumption to
paradise has been mentioned in this Apocalypse s grand review of biblical
history. This makes very improbable the alternative suggestion: that the ram
of 90:31 is Judas Maccabeus (depicted as a ram in 90:9 10).56 Most scholars
have agreed that the ram must be Elijah.57
The last phrase of 1 Enoch 90:31 ( before the judgment took place ) is
problematic. The judgment has already been recounted (90:20 27) and has
been followed by an account of the New Jerusalem (90:28 30). No further
judgment follows. It may be that the text is completely corrupt. 58 If not,
then according to Nickelsburg either the verse has been (accidentally?)
transposed from its chronologically correct location between vv 19 and 20,
or that before the judgment took place is a scribal gloss that ties Enoch s
and Elijah s return to earth to the tradition of their participation in the
judgment. 59 It would seem easiest to suppose that, whatever the origin
of the last phrase in the present Ethiopic text, the verse did not originally
place the coming of Enoch and Elijah before the judgment. In that case, the
significance of their return is not difficult to decide. They return in order to
participate in the new age along with the rest of God s faithful people. What
is clear is that they do not oppose an Antichrist figure or die at his hands.
Those features of the later tradition are absent from this earliest reference
to the return of Enoch and Elijah.
Additional Note C:
A non-Christian Jewish tradition of the return
and martyrdom of Enoch and Elijah?
In a brief response or addendum to my article,60 Alexander Zeron pointed
out the relevance of a passage I had not cited: Pseudo-Philo, Biblical Antiq-
56
J. T. Milik, The Books of Enoch: Aramaic Fragments of Qumrân Cave 4 (Oxford:
Clarendon Press, 1976) 45.
57
Matthew Black, The Two Witnesses of Rev. 11:3 f. in Jewish and Christian Apoca-
lyptic Tradition, in Ernst Bammel, C. Kingsley Barrett and W. D. Davies (ed.), Donum
Gentilicium: New Testament Studies in Honour of David Daube (Oxford: Clarendon
Press, 1978) 227 237, here 228 and n. 1; idem, The Book of Enoch or 1 Enoch (SVTP
7; Leiden: Brill, 1985) 279; Patrick A. Tiller, A Commentary on the Animal Apocalypse
of 1 Enoch (SBL Early Judaism and Its Literature 04; Atlanta, Georgia: Scholars Press,
1993) 377 378; George W. E. Nickelsburg, 1 Enoch 1 (Hermeneia; Minneapolis: Fortress,
2001) 405.
58
Tiller, A Commentary, 379.
59
Nickelsburg, 1 Enoch 1, 405.
60
Alexander Zeron, The Martyrdom of Phineas-Elijah, JBL 98 (1979) 99 100.
Richard Bauckham,
The Jewish World around the New Testament,
Baker Academic, a division of Baker Publishing Group, © 2010. Used by permission.
2. The Martyrdom of Enoch and Elijah: Jewish or Christian? 21
uities 48:1. This passage, probably from the late first century, is the earliest
evidence of a tradition, later found in the Pseudo-Jonathan Targum to the
Pentateuch (Exod 4:13; 6:18; 40:10; Deut 30:4; cf. Num 25:12) and occa-
sionally in rabbinic literature (Pirqe R. El. 29), that identified Elijah with
the high priest Phinehas, the grandson of Aaron.61 We need not discuss the
exegetical origins of the tradition here. What is important for our present
purposes is that the version of the tradition in Pseudo-Philo refers to the
death of the returning Elijah:
And in that time Phinehas laid himself down to die, and the Lord said to him, Behold
you have passed the 120 years that have been established for every man. And now
rise up and go from here and dwell in Danaben on the mountain and dwell there
many years. And I will command my eagle, and he will nourish you there, and you
will not come down to mankind until the time arrives and you be tested at that time;
and you will shut up the heaven then, and by your mouth it will be opened up. And
afterward you will be lifted up into the place where those who were before you were
lifted up, and you will be there until I remember the world. Then I will make you all
come, and you [plural] will taste what is death (Bib Ant. 48:1).62
Here Phinehas is commanded to hide on a mountain, where God nourishes
him, until the time many centuries later when he is to re-appear in the
world as the prophet Elijah, unequivocally identified by the information
that he will both conjure up a drought and put an end to it. Elijah s ascension
is then predicted: you will be lifted up into the place where those who were
before you (priores tui) were lifted up. Presumably this is paradise, and
there Elijah and the others remain until, at the end time, God brings them
back to the earth. Only then will Phinehas-Elijah and the others die. This
reference to the death of Phinehas-Elijah in the eschatological future seems
to be unique among the texts that identify Phinehas and Elijah.
Who are the ones who had been lifted up to paradise before Phinehas-
Elijah? Certainly they include Enoch, whose translation to heaven Pseudo-
Philo has noted in its place, following Genesis 5:24 (Lib. Ant. 1:16). Perhaps
Pseudo-Philo s statement that Enoch was not found (non inveniebatur),
where Genesis has was not, is intended to assimilate Enoch s ascension to
61
Martin Hengel, The Zealots, tr. David Smith (Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1989) chap.
IVB; Robert Hayward, Phinehas the Same is Elijah, JJS 29 (1978) 22 34; Richard
Bauckham, Messianism According to the Gospel of John, in John Lierman (ed.), Chal-
lenging Perspectives on the Gospel of John (WUNT 2/219; Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2006)
34 68, here 36 37.
62
Translation from D. J. Harrington, Pseudo-Philo, in James Charlesworth (ed.),
The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha, vol. 1 (London: Darton, Longman & Todd, 1983)
297 377, here 362. For the argument that Phinehas is here identified with Elijah, see
Frederick J. Murphy, Pseudo-Philo: Rewriting the Bible (New York/Oxford: Oxford
University Press, 1993) 184 185; Howard Jacobson, A Commentary on Pseudo-Philo s
Liber Antiquitatum Biblicarum, vol. 2 (AGAJU 31; Leiden: Brill, 1996) 1060.
Richard Bauckham,
The Jewish World around the New Testament,
Baker Academic, a division of Baker Publishing Group, © 2010. Used by permission.
22 2. The Martyrdom of Enoch and Elijah: Jewish or Christian?
that of Elijah (cf. 2 Kgs 2:17).63 Pseudo-Philo nowhere indicates that any
other of his characters belong in the same category. According to 2 Baruch
(13:3), Baruch does, and according to 4 Ezra (14:9), Ezra does, but these
lived long after Elijah s ascension.64 Later rabbinic literature supplies other
names of those who entered paradise alive : Eliezer the servant of Abraham,
Serah the daughter of Asher (Gen 46:17), Bithiah the daughter of Pharaoh
(1 Chron 4:17, identified with the Egyptian princess who rescued Moses),
Jabez (1 Chron 4:9 10), Hiram king of Tyre, Ebed-melech the Ethiopian
(Jer 38:7 13; 39:15 18), Jonadab the Rechabite and his descendants (Jer 35),
the servant of Rabbi Judah the Prince, Rabbi Joshua ben Levi, and the Mes-
siah.65 Of these, Eliezer, Serah, Bithiah, and perhaps Jabez, lived before the
time of Phinehas, while Hiram lived before the time of Elijah s ascension.
We have no evidence that precisely these persons were already, in the late
first century ce, when Pseudo-Philo wrote, thought not to have died, but,
in some cases at least, this idea about them was based in ingenious exegesis
of the kind that certainly was employed in Pseudo-Philo s time and often
presupposed by Pseudo-Philo s text. Some of these persons, therefore, may
be those, besides Enoch, who had already been translated to paradise before
Phinehas-Elijah was.
Pseudo-Philo s Biblical Antiquities has much in common, especially in its
eschatological themes and language, with the two apocalypses of roughly
the same date: 4 Ezra and 2 Baruch.66 The notion of a group of people who
had not died and whom God would bring to earth at the end-time is found
in 4 Ezra (6:26; 7:28; 13:52; 14:9), which provides the closest parallel to the
Biblical Antiquities in this respect. The group are defined as those who
were taken up, who from their birth have not tasted death (6:26). The fol-
lowing passage is especially illuminating for our purposes:
For my son the Messiah shall be revealed with those who are with him, and those
who remain shall rejoice four hundred years. After those years my son the Messiah
shall die, and all who draw human breath. Then the world shall be turned back to
primeval silence for seven days, as it was at the first beginnings, so that no one shall
63
Zeron, The Martyrdom, 100.
64
2 Macc 15:13 16 is sometimes cited as evidence of a belief that Jeremiah had ascended
without dying. This is not at all certain, but in any case, for our purposes, is not relevant,
since Jeremiah lived after the ascension of Elijah.
65
Louis Ginzberg, The Legends of the Jews, vol. 5 (Philadelphia: Jewish Publication
Society of America, 1925) 95 96. The Messiah is included in the list of nine (including
Enoch and Elijah) in Derek Erec Zuta 1, because he was thought to have lived at some
point in Israel s history and to have then been taken up to heaven, whence God will bring
him to earth in the last days. This tradition is probably also presupposed in 4 Ezra 7:28.
66
M. R. James, The Biblical Antiquities of Philo (London: SPCK, 1917) 46 58; Har-
rington, Pseudo-Philo, 302.
Richard Bauckham,
The Jewish World around the New Testament,
Baker Academic, a division of Baker Publishing Group, © 2010. Used by permission.
2. The Martyrdom of Enoch and Elijah: Jewish or Christian? 23
be left. After seven days the world that is not yet awake shall be roused, and that
which is corruptible shall perish (4 Ezra 7:28 31 NRSV).
In this passage those who are with the Messiah apparently share in the mes-
sianic kingdom, at the end of which both the Messiah and all living humans
die. The latter must include those who had been taken up without dying
and who return to earth with the Messiah at the beginning of the messianic
kingdom. The idea seems to be that everything in this world must revert to
nothing before it can be recreated in the world to come. No mortal being,
not even the Messiah himself, can enter the new creation without dying and
rising again. The issue seems to be the same as that with which Paul deals in
1 Corinthians 15:50 52, though the solution is rather different.67
It is not easy to parallel at all precisely these expectations of the death
of the Messiah and the reversion of all creation to chaos (though cf. 2 Bar
44:9), but it is notable how closely the end of this passage and the following
verses (4 Ezra 7:31 35) are paralleled by Biblical Antiquities 3:10, including
the idea of another, everlasting world to come. In view of the close parallels
at these and other points between the eschatological expectations of 4 Ezra
and Pseudo-Philo, it is reasonable to find in 4 Ezra 7:28 31 an explanation
of the expected death of the returning Elijah in Biblical Antiquities 48:1.
Phinehas-Elijah will finally taste death because every human must; it is the
only way into the new creation. But he will die, not be killed. Thus, while
Zeron was right to find in Biblical Antiquities 48:1 an expectation that
both Enoch and Elijah (along with others who ascended without dying)
will eventually die, he was mistaken to call this death martyrdom. 68 This
expectation has little in common with the expectation found in the Christian
apocalypses that Enoch and Elijah will come to denounce Antichrist and
will be put to death by him. Both the manner of their death and the rationale
for it are quite different.
Two studies that relate quite closely to the chapter above were published,
coincidentally, around the same time. The first was the major work by Klaus
Berger: Die Auferstehung des Propheten und die Erhöhung des Menschen-
sohn: Traditionsgeschtichtliche Untersuchungen zur Deutung des Geschickes
Jesu in frühchristlichen Texten (SUNT 13; Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ru-
precht, 1976). The second was a journal article: Johannes M. Nützel, Zum
Schichsal der eschatologischen Propheten, BZ 20 (1976) 59 94.
67
Rabbinic literature often denies that either Enoch or Elijah escaped death. This may
be due to a comparable sense that human nature as it exists in this world is mortal and
there can be no exceptions to the universality of death. Denying that Enoch and Elijah
ascended without dying deals with this concern in one way, affirming that they will die
following their future return does so in another.
68
Zeron, The Martyrdom, 100.
Richard Bauckham,
The Jewish World around the New Testament,
Baker Academic, a division of Baker Publishing Group, © 2010. Used by permission.
24 2. The Martyrdom of Enoch and Elijah: Jewish or Christian?
Berger s book argues that there was a pre-Christian Jewish tradition in
which a prophet (or prophets) would come in the last days, be put to death
and be raised up by God prior to the general resurrection. This expectation
of the pre-eschatological resurrection of a final prophet lies behind the early
Christian accounts of the resurrection appearances of Jesus and the early
Christian understanding of that event. For evidence of the pre-Christian
Jewish tradition Berger relies on tradition-historical analysis of (1) Mark
6:14 16; (2) Rev 11:3 13; (3) the tradition of the eschatological return, mar-
tyrdom and resurrection of Enoch and Elijah in a large number of Christian
texts, most of which are also the texts listed and analysed in my chapter
above. The arguments deserve fuller discussion than can be given here, but
what is most problematic about the whole argument is that Berger can cite
no non-Christian Jewish text that speaks of the resurrection of a martyred
eschatological prophet. Everything depends on distinguishing pre- or non-
Christian elements from Christian elements in Christian texts. The lack of
even a single unequivocally non-Christian Jewish text containing the pre-
Christian Jewish tradition Berger constructs must throw serious doubt on
the whole argument, especially as there are non-Christian Jewish texts that
speak of final prophets (especially Elijah) without the element that is crucial
for Berger s case: their pre-eschatological resurrection.
Nützel s article, written just before the publication of Berger s book, is
nevertheless in a sense a reply to Berger s main argument. He is responding
to a suggestion made by Rudolf Pesch, made first in a lecture in Tübingen in
June 1972 and then in a published version of the lecture in 1973.69 Between
giving the lecture and publishing the article Pesch had read Berger s work in
a version70 earlier than the one Berger published in 1976.71 It was primarily
Berger s evidence that Pesch presented, briefly, in his 1973 article,72 when he
argued that there was, at the time of Jesus, a widespread Jewish expectation
of the resurrection and ascension of the final prophet, prior to the general
resurrection, and that this expectation lies behind the early Christian beliefs
about Jesus. Nützel s article is an examination of the most important of the
texts that both Berger and Pesch cite as evidence for this alleged expecta-
tion. He discusses, as of prime importance, the Apocalypse of Elijah and
Revelation 11:3 11, and then, more briefly, the Apocalypse of Peter, the
various Sibylline texts that contain the tradition about the return of Enoch
69
Rudolf Pesch, Zur Entstehung des Glaubens an die Auferstehung Jesu: Ein Vor-
schlag zur Diskussion, ThQ 153 (1973) 201 228.
70
Berger s Habilitation dissertation, Hamburg.
71
Klaus Berger: Die Auferstehung des Propheten und die Erhöhung des Menschensohn
(SUNT 13; Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1976) 5. Pesch s article generated a
controversy among German scholars. Berger, Die Auferstehung, 5 6, lists contributions
to this up to 1976, but not Nützel s article.
72
Pesch, Zur Entstehung, 222 226.
Richard Bauckham,
The Jewish World around the New Testament,
Baker Academic, a division of Baker Publishing Group, © 2010. Used by permission.
2. The Martyrdom of Enoch and Elijah: Jewish or Christian? 25
and Elijah, Lactantius (Div. Inst. 17.1 3), a reference to the return of Elijah
in one version of the Lives of the Prophets, and the Arabic Apocalypse of
Schenoute. Like Berger, he engages in tradition-historical and redactional
analysis, especially of Rev 11:3 13 and Apocalypse of Elijah 3:7 20a,73 and
detects behind these two texts non-Christian Jewish traditions of the return,
martyrdom and resurrection of two eschatological prophets, but insists that
these traditions did not include the ascension of the prophets to heaven
after resurrection. Moreover he argues that the time and place of these two
instances of such a tradition (first century bce, Egypt, and late first century
ce, Asia Minor) make them of no value for establishing a tradition wide-
spread in Palestine at the time of Jesus. Mark 6:16 provides only dubious
evidence for such a tradition. Nützel s study comes considerably closer to
Berger s view of the tradition than my own does, but he nevertheless rules
it out as plausible or relevant background for early Christian beliefs about
the resurrection and exaltation of Jesus.
73
In the chapter and verse division used by Nützel, this is 3:7 21.
Richard Bauckham,
The Jewish World around the New Testament,
Baker Academic, a division of Baker Publishing Group, © 2010. Used by permission.
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