297
IMPLICATIONS OF THE PRONAOS OBSERVATIONS FOR THE LARGE SCALE SURVEYS
WITH FIRST
J.-P. Bernard1, A. Abergel1, F. Boulanger1, X. Dupac2, M. Giard2, G. Lagache1, J.-M. Lamarre1,
C. Meny2, I. Ristorcelli2, and B. Stepnik1,2
1
Institut d Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), Bât. 121, Université Paris XI, F-91405 Orsay, France
2
Centre d Etude Spatial des Rayonnements (CESR), 9 av. Colonel Roche, BP 4346, F-31028 Toulouse, France
Abstract to the limited sensitivity of the FIRAS data. At higher
angular resolution, the IRAS data has shown the exis-
We present recent sub-millimeter (200-600 µm) obser-
tence of a wide variety of IR color changes in the ISM.
vations obtained with the balloon experiment Pronaos.
These include I12/I100 color variations (e.g. Boulanger et
These have lead to exciting and sometimes unexpected
al. 1990) which are observed toward HII regions where
new results regarding the nature, the composition and
they are interpreted as PAH destruction in regions with
chemistry of dust grains in the ISM. In particular, they
high radiation field, as well as toward haloes surrounding
reveal dust significantly colder than expected (T=12 K)
some translucent clouds (e.g. Bernard et al. 1992) where
in translucent and optically thin clouds at high galactic
they reflect PAH overabundances, possibly linked to PAH
latitude, which can be interpreted as evidence for the ex-
desorption from the surface of larger grains. Extreme cases
istence of porous dust aggregates in diffuse clouds. The
have recently been evidenced using the ISO data, where
Pronaos observations also show a significant anticorrela-
PAH abundance have been demonstrated to vary by large
tion between dust equilibrium temperature and the spec-
factors (as high as 10) within a diffuse cirrus cloud in
tral index of its emissivity law in the sub-millimeter. This
Ursa Major (Mivilles-DeschÄnes 2000). In this case, the
may reflect quantum processes within the grains that ap-
comparison between the ISO and interferometer HI data
pear only at low temperature and thus brings new in-
obtained using the Dominion Radio Astrophysical Obser-
sight on the nature of large dust grains in the ISM. Owing
vatory (DRAO) shows a strong correlation with the HI
to the wavelength range covered and the high sensitivity
line-width, indicating for the first time a possible connec-
achieved, the Pronaos observations prefigure what will be
tion of the abundance of the smallest dust particles with
possible on large scale and higher angular resolution with
turbulence.
FIRST. These results strongly argue in favor of a large
survey of the diffuse ISM with FIRST and have direct
implications about how to conduct such a survey.
Key words: ISM: dust property, continuum emission Mis-
sions: PRONAOS, FIRST Object: Taurus, Polaris
1. Large Scale Results on Diffuse Clouds
IRAS
The correlation study between the DIRBE and FIRAS
DIRBE
Pronaos
data and HI emission from the Dwingeloo survey has shown
DMR
that, on average, dust associated to neutral Hydrogen in
Halo cloud
Cold cirrus
high latitude cirrus clouds reaches an equilibrium temper-
17.5 K ½2 spectrum
ISOCAM / FIRAS data
ature of 17.5 K (assuming a dust emissivity index of 2 in
Small grain rotation
the sub-millimeter) in the solar neighborhood (Boulanger
et al. 1996). The high latitude dust also exhibits, on av-
erage, an emissivity value very close from that predicted
by the model of Draine and Lee 1984. Similarly, the FI-
Figure 1. Average diffuse ISM spectrum. The ISOCAM and FI-
RAS/WHAM correlation has allowed the first characteri-
RAS spectra are shown as black curves and the DIRBE broad
zation of dust associated to the diffuse ionized gas Lagache
band measurements as triangles. The range of known varia-
et al. 2000, showing similar properties as the ones for HI
tions in observed SEDs is illustrated by the spectrum of cold
associated dust. However, these studies could only derive
dust from a cirrus cloud in Polaris and of a bright mid-IR
average values over a large fraction of the sky at high lati- halo cloud in Chamaeleon. The DMR data showing evidence
for small grain rotation is shown as diamonds. All data has
tude and the homogeneity of the dust temperature and/or
been scaled to NH =4×1020 H/cm2 (AV =0.2).
emission properties cannot be tested on smaller scales, due
Proc. Symposium The Promise of the Herschel Space Observatory 12 15 December 2000, Toledo, Spain
ESA SP-460, July 2001, eds. G.L. Pilbratt, J. Cernicharo, A.M. Heras, T. Prusti, & R. Harris
298 J.-P. Bernard et al.
Similarly, regions with low 60 µm relative to their
100 µm emission have been evidenced (Laureijs et al. 1991,
Abergel et al. 1994) in difference maps between the two
IRAS bands. They seem to closely correspond to molecu-
lar regions (as in the Taurus molecular complex), but not
all molecular clouds show the trend (e.g. the Á-Ophiuchi
molecular cloud). Under recent dust models which include
transient heating of small dust particles (Désert et al.
1990), these variations are readily interpreted as a lack
of intermediate size particles (VSGs, Very Small Grains).
Originally, these regions were referred to as cold clouds
owing to their distinctive IRAS colors. However, since dif-
ferent dust particles (VSGs and BGs respectively) domi-
nate the IR emission at 60 and 100 µm, the temperature
derived from the I60/I100 ratio is not physical. Large scale
measurements with DIRBE showed that, on average, dust
toward these regions was indeed colder than the average
ISM (Lagache et al. 1988), but no clear physical interpre-
tation could be given. Measuring the actual temperature
of large grains on small scale toward these regions has be-
come possible only recently with ISO and balloon-borne
measurements (see next section).
Therefore, large abundance variations of small dust Figure 2. Schematics of the PRONAOS Gondola. Several sub-
systems can be identified (from top to bottom): Telescope shut-
particles (PAH and VSG) seems fairly common in the
ter, secondary mirror, segmented primary mirror, SPM focal
ISM, although the origin of these variations is not yet
plane instrument (in the back), stellar sensor, landing structure
understood. This is illustrated in Fig. 1 which shows the
(reverse umbrella shaped tubular structure) and ballast hoppers.
average dust emission at high latitude and extreme Spec-
The overall height of the gondola is 8 m. Its total weight is 2
tral Energy Distributions observed toward VSG deficient
tons.
and PAH overabundant regions.
In the millimeter range, a combined analysis of the FI-
RAS and DMR data toward diffuse regions shows evidence day detection of stars to a relative accuracy of about 5
rms.
for excess emission relative to that of dust associated with
HI gas (e.g. Kogut et al. 1996). As shown by Draine and The focal plane instrument, SPM ( Spectro PhotomĊtre
Lazarian 1999, this excess in the longest wavelength DMR Submillimetrique ), is a submillimeter photometer observ-
channels can be accounted for by free-free emission and ing simultaneously in four channels at 200, 260, 360 and
emission from rotating small dust particles. It is there- 580 µm (effective wavelengths for a ½2 emissivity grey body
fore expected that dust emission above a few millimeters spectrumat 30 K) in wide bands (" =60, 100, 200 and
will be dominated by small dust particles. Note that the 560 µm respectively). A detailed description of the SPM
extrapolation of the T =17.5 K½2 spectrum does not ex- photometer and the PRONAOS gondola and telescope is
plain the DMR measurement at 3.3 mm, leaving room for given in Lamarre et al. 1994. The beam of the instrument
yet another dust component such as very cold dust. is modulated on the sky with an amplitude of 6.0 at a
frequency of 20 Hz using an internal wobbling mirror. De-
tection is achieved using four bolometers cooled to 0.3 K
3
2. The PRONAOS Experiment
by two compact, closed cycle He fridges. The FWHM
beam size, as measured on a map of Saturn during the
The balloon-borne experiment PRONAOS1 ( PROjet NA-
flight, is 2 , 2 , 2.5 and 3.5 respectively. The in-flight re-
tional d Observation Submilletrique ) consist of a gondola
sponse of the SPM instrument is measured using a dual
hosting a 2m segmented submillimeter telescope. The ob-
temperature internal calibration system. Variations of the
servations presented here were taken during the second
response are lower than 10% in all 4 bands and the rel-
flight from Fort-Sumner (NM, USA) on September 22 1996
ative uncertainty between photometric bands is less than
during which data could be obtained under good condi-
5%.
tions for more than 20 hours. The fine pointing of the
In all cases, the PRONAOS maps were smoothed to
payload is ensured by a star tracker allowing night and
the resolution of the long wavelength channel (3.5 ) and
1
the data was combined to the IRAS measurements at 60
PRONAOS was built as a national cooperation involving
and 100 µm, in order to extend the available spectral in-
the Centre National de Recherche Scientifique (CNRS) and the
Centre National d Etudes Spatiales (CNES). formation. Since the PRONAOS data are obtained using
Implications of the PRONAOS Observations for the Large Scale Surveys with FIRST 299
beam modulation on the sky which subtracts out low spa- abundance of VSG and to the low dust temperature ob-
tial frequencies, an accurate comparison requires a similar served. A more quantitative study of the submillimeter
subtraction in the IRAS data. This is accomplished by emission of the Taurus filament was performed by Step-
simulating the PRONAOS observing strategy (modula- nik et al. 2001, which included radiative transfer within
tion, scanning, beam size) on the IRAS ISSA maps. From a cylindrical geometry and incorporated realistic optical
then on, the same data reduction as for the PRONAOS properties for fractal grains. They showed that the submil-
data (deconvolution, averaging, . . . ) is applied to the sim- limeter emission profiles across the Taurus filament are
ulated IRAS data. consistent with the standard dust distribution proposed
by Désert et al. 1990 in the outskirts of the cloud, but
requires an abrupt change of the properties in the inner
3. Pronaos Observations of Translucent Clouds
regions (nH > 3103 H/cm3, Av > 2.0). The required in-
crease of the submillimeter emissivity is of the order of
Two diffuse clouds were observed usingPRONAOS during
3.4 times that of standard large grains. In the framework
the 1996 flight, in the Polaris flare (MCLD 123.5+24.9:
of fractal grains composed of individual standard large
Bernard et al. 1999) and the Taurus region (Stepnik et al.
grains, this can be achieved with very porous (volume fill-
2001). Visual extinction maps toward those clouds were
ing factors of a few %) fluffy aggregates containing up to
obtained through star counts in the PMM-USNO cata-
200 individual grains. This is expected to be an upper
log in the B band, following the procedure described in
limit since the Qabs calculation did not incorporate the
Cambrésy 1999. The extinction measured toward the two
presence of graphite dominated VSG in the aggregate and
clouds is low (Av =0.8 mag for MCLD 123.5+24.9) to in-
the submillimeter emissivity enhancement of graphite ag-
termediate (Av =3.9 mag for the Taurus filament). Both
gregates is known to be 6 times more efficient than for
clouds have well detected molecular emission, and exhibit
silicate ones (Stognienko et al. 1995).
a large I100 - I60 IRAS excess indicating a strong VSG
abundance deficiency.
A detailed analysis of of the Pronaos Taurus data is
4. Pronaos Observations of Star Forming Regions
given in Stepnik et al. in these proceedings. Toward the
inner regions of the filaments, the best Ç2 fit to the SPM
Several nearby star forming regions have been observed
and IRAS data at 100 µm, taking into account the un-
with PRONAOS, including the Orion nebula (Ristorcelli
certainties on each measurement (errors quoted at the
et al. 1998, Dupac et al. 2001), Á-Ophiuchi and M17. The
68% confidence level), leads to a dust temperature and a
observations toward the Orion Nebula have allowed to de-
sub-millimeter emissivity index of Td =12.3 Ä
0.4 K and
tect low brightness clouds away from the very bright areas
² = 1.9 Ä
0.2 respectively. The emission from the outer
corresponding to regions currently forming stars. These
regions of the cloud was also detected by PRONAOS and
clouds exhibit low dust temperatures, down to Td=12 K.
shows higher dust temperature values (Td =14.8 Ä
0.6 K)
Their origin is still not understood and their low submm
than toward the center. The transition between the ex-
brightness makes additional ground observations very dif-
tended envelope and the cold filament core is not resolved
ficult.
by the PRONAOS observations (i.e. is smaller than 3.5 )
but corresponds precisely to the region where the I100-I60
IRAS excess changes abruptly, strongly pointing toward 2.5
a physical connection between the two effects. Similarly
Orion
M17
cold dust and steep emissivity index (Td =13.0 Ä
0.8 K
Á-Ophiuchi
and ² =2.2 Ä
0.3) have been evidenced toward the cirrus
2.0
MCLD 123.5+24.9.
For both clouds, it could be demonstrated that the
low dust temperatures observed cannot be explained by
1.5
the radiative transfer of UV photons from the Interstel-
lar Radiation Field (ISRF) through the cloud. Instead,
it is necessary to invoke a change in the optical proper-
1.0
ties of the emitting grains in the abnormally cold regions
of the clouds. Since the cold regions also present strong
VSG deficiency, we proposed (Bernard et al. 1999) that
the change of the BG optical properties may be due to 0.5
10 20 30 40 50
the coagulation of VSGs with larger grains. Fractal grains
Tdust (K)
generally have increased emissivity in the FIR (e.g. Wright
1987, Bazell and Dwek 1990) which tends to lower their Figure 3. Anti-correlation between dust equilibrium temperature
equilibrium temperature. Dust coagulation could there- and emissivity index as observed using PRONAOS toward sev-
eral nearby star forming regions.
fore provide a natural explanation both to the reduced
²
300
Figure 3 shows the emissivity index plotted against in the Planck data, should also emerge from the currently
dust temperature for several dust condensations observed planned FIRST shallow cosmological surveys. However,
in the above star forming regions. A clear anti-correlation we have seen that several important transitions affecting
(correlation coefficient of the order of -0.9) is observed be- dust properties are taking place at intermediate column
tween these two parameters for the 3 regions. Note that densities. This strongly calls for a large scale survey with
the fitting procedure used to derive Td and ² induces PACS and SPIRE targeting at dust emission from inter-
a natural anti-correlation between these two parameters. mediate column density regions (0.1 < Av < 10) of the
However, the resulting correlation coefficient for a popula- ISM.
tion of spectra with no intrinsic parameter correlation was In the mean time, the next step in our steady under-
found to be -0.4, well below the observed value (Dupac et standing of the FIR-mm emission properties of interstellar
al. 2001). The observed anti-correlation therefore reflects dust is expected to come from the all sky survey of the
actual changes of the submillimeter optical dust proper- Japanese astro-F mission at 160µm as well as from the
ties with temperature. Interestingly, a similar trend has ELISA balloon-borne experiment (see Ristorcelli et al. in
been observed in the few laboratory studies which could these proceedings) which will map a large fraction of the
measure optical properties of bulk silicates at low tem- sky in the wavelength range relevant to FIRST, and will
perature (Agladze et al. 1996, Menella et al. 1998). They be available for planning future large scale surveys with
may reflect quantum processes within the grains appear- FIRST.
ing only at low temperature. To our knowledge, this is the
first time such effects are evidenced in the ISM.
References
Abergel A., Boulanger F., Mizuno A. et al., 1994, ApJ 423, 59.
5. Implications for FIRST Surveys
Agladze N.I, Sievers A.J., Jones S.A. et al. 1996, ApJ 462, 1026
Bazell D. & Dwek E., 1990, ApJ 360, 142.
Recent sensitive observations in the IR and sub-millimeter
Bernard J.-P., Boulanger F., Désert F.X. et al., 1992, A&A,
have evidenced unexpected dust properties such as low
263, 258.
equilibrium temperatures toward some cirrus or translu-
Bernard J.-P., Abergel A., Ristorcelli I. et al., 1999, A&A, 347,
cent clouds and the existence of a significant anti-correlation
640.
between the dust temperature and emissivity index in
Boulanger F., Falgarone E., Pujet J.-L. et al. 1990, ApJ 364,
nearby star forming regions. However, the available bal- 136.
loon data are still very incomplete and possibly very much Boulanger F., Abergel A., Bernard J.-P. et al., 1996, A&A 312,
256.
biased toward extreme regions, while the poor angular
Cambrésy L., 1999, A&A 345, 965.
resolution of existing satellite data generally prevents de-
Désert F.-X., Boulanger F., Pujet J.-L. 1990, A&A 237, 215.
tailed studies of individual regions and precise physical
Draine B.T. & Lee H.M., 1984, ApJ 285, 89.
interpretation. In the millimeter range, dust emission is
Draine B.T. & Lazarian A., 1999, ApJ 512, 740.
likely dominated by the rotation of very small dust parti-
Dupac X., Giard M., Bernard J.P. et al. 2001, accepted in ApJ.
cles, which abundance in the diffuse ISM is known to vary
Kogut A., Banday A.J., Bennett C.L. et al. 1996, ApJ 460, 1.
with physical conditions such as density or turbulence and
Lagache G., Abergel A., Boulanger F., Pujet J.-L. 1998, A&A
to be affected by shocks. Therefore, the dust emission in
333, 709.
the FIR-mm wavelength range maybe far more complex
Lagache G., Haffner L.M., Reynolds R.J. et al. 2000, A&A 354,
than previously anticipated. This has direct implications
247.
upon future cosmology missions (such as Planck) which Lamarre J.-M., Pajot F., Torre J.-P. et al., 1994, IR Phys.
Techno., 35, 277.
will require precise subtraction of Galactic foregrounds in
Laureijs R. J., Clark F. O., Prusti T. 1991, ApJ 371, 602.
the millimeter.
Menella V., Brucato J. R., Colangeli L. et al. 1998, ApJ 496,
Large surveys which can be undertaken with FIRST
1058.
within dedicated key programs will offer the possibility
Mivilles-DeschÄnes M.A. 2000, PhD thesis.
to understand the physical processes which are respon-
Ristorcelli I., Serra G., Lamarre J.M. et al 1998, A&A 496,
sible for the variations of the dust size distribution and
267.
optical properties in the diffuse ISM with unprecedented
Stepnik B. et al 2001 submitted to A&A.
angular resolution. Combining these data with the all-sky
Stognienko R., Henning T., Ossenkopf V. 1995, A&A 296, 797.
Planck survey will allow to characterize the dust emis-
Wright E.L., 1987, ApJ 320,818.
sion properties over the whole FIR-mm wavelength range.
Surveys for Young Stellar Object that will be undertaken
with FIRST toward molecular clouds should also be well
suited to constrain dust properties in opaque regions of
the ISM (say Av > 10). Dust properties in very diffuse
parts of the ISM (say Av < 0.1), which are of particular
importance for understanding foreground contamination
Wyszukiwarka
Podobne podstrony:
Implications of the Global Economic Crisis2008 06 the Way of the Ray Enterprise Collaboration with Liferaydeveloping large scale systems with the rational unified processzA2AF65Hutter, Crisp Implications of Cognitive Busyness for the Perception of Category ConjunctionsMeeting between the Swedish Chairmanship of the Arctic Council and ObserversBattle For The Planet Of The ApApplication of the Electromagnetic Model for Diagnosing Shock Wave Processes in MetalsStudy of the microwave vacuum drying Process for a granulated product (Berteli, Rodier)MODELING OF THE ACOUSTO ELECTROMAGNETIC METHOD FOR IONOSPHERE MONITORING EP 32(0275)Modeling Of The Wind Turbine With A Doubly Fed Induction Generator For Grid Integration StudiesFor the Present & The Other Side of the StarsStructure, chromosomal localization, and expression of the gene for mousewiÄcej podobnych podstron