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Gustav Adolf and the Art of War¹

Until very recent times it has been a sound generalization that no offensive action can be won by missile weapons alone. It is a generalization which may well be invalid today; but there can be no doubt that it is substantially accurate for the Middle Ages. The art of war in mediaeval Europę was essentially a hand-to-hand business, and it was no less essentially offensive, sińce the arms and eąuipment of the mediaeval knight left no other course open to him save attack. And because feudal chivalry was by its naturę committed to the offensive, the defensive-offensive tactics of Crecy and Poitiers became a possi-bility - thoueh even here the swords of the men-at-arms were needed to clinch a victory which the arrow-shower had only begun. But this was a method of fighting which could hardly be repeated indefinitely, sińce it depended for its success upon the rashness of the enemy, and upon the calculation that the opposing commander would prove incapable of tactical impro-visations; and the time came when neither of these presupposi-tions proved true any longer. The really decisive overthrow of the heavy-armed cavalry, therefore, came not firom bowmen, and still less firom hand-gunners, but from the bringing to bear of a shock and mass greater and morę tightly organized than that provided by a charge of men-at-arms. Such a shock, and such a mass, madę its appearance first in the Swiss column, then in the Landsknechts and the Spanish tercio.

From the point of view of battle-tacdcs, the invention of firearms was at first of very minor importance, Indeed, it

GUSTAV ADOLF AND THE ART OF WAR

represented, for close on two centuries, a decidedly retrograde step. Firearms in battle attempted to repeat the tactics of Grćcy with instruments which were ludicrously unapt for the purpose. Their weight, their unreliability, their inaccuracy, their painfully slow ratę of fire, madę the early hand-guns, arąuebuses, and muskets inferior, in every respect save one, to the cross-bows and longbows they superseded. The arąuebus possibly, the musket morę probably, could claim a higher pene-trative power ;^a but this advantage could not offset the counter-vailing defects. The period of military history which extends from Charles the Bold to Tilly is marked above all by a catastrophic diminution in the firepower of the infantry arm.³

The commanders of the early sixteenth cen tury seem to have cared little for this aspect of the ąuestion. The pikę was now supreme; and the Swiss column, luckily for itself, never came up against massed English archers. In the first ąuarter of the cen tury arquebus and musket madę good their footing on the Continent,⁴ and for the next hundred years or morę provided military theorists with the very difficult problem of deciding how to make the best use of them. What proportion were missile weapons to bear to Farmę blanche? And how was the most effective combination of the two to be secured?

By about 1580, the influence of portable firearms had suc-ceeded in diverting the art of war into two exceptionally blind alleys. It had, in the first place, completed that demorałization \ of heavy cavalry which the English and the Swiss had begun. i The man-at-arms, outweighted by the Swiss column, his lance outranged by the eighteen-foot pikę, had found that the musket-eers could not be relied upon to make a practicable breach in the ranks of the enemy into which cavalry could charge. Direct assault with lance and sword became increasingly suiddal. But then came the invention (about 1520)⁵ of the wheel-lock pistol; and the discomfited cavaliers were not slow to adopt it. In theory, the pistol enabled the cavalryman to blow holes in the pike-hedge, independently of infantry assistance. In fact, it provided him with a pretext for doing nothing, while seeming to do much. The effective rangę of the cavalry pistol being something under ten yards,⁶ cavalry madę use of it by advanc-ing in very deep forma tions to within that distąnce of the enemy, and discharging their weapons by successive ranks inanintricate

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