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the second half of the century they often formed over half of the available forces in supposedly feudal Southern Italy.

Communal militias remained predominant to the north, but even here things were changing by the end of the century. Factionalism, rather than the resulting rule of oligarchies and aristocratic signori, was a major reason for the decline of the militias. Mercenaries, exiles from other towns or unemployed foreign troops, were also available, skilledandrelativelycheap. Relianceonforeigners, supposedly untainted by local politics, had also proved its worth in the persons of those podestas— chief magistrates enlisted from outside—who had already brought peace to a number of faction-torn Italian cities.

Given the riots, conspiracies and assassinations that characterised communal politics, it was hardly surprising that a ruling group felt dis-inclined to arm a city’s population. At the same time reliable permanent forces were often needed, not to defend the walls but to garrison the extended frontiers of the contado or to attack a neighbouring commercial competitor. The podestas’ guard often became the nucleus of a mercenary company. The izph century also saw city-fathers increasingly handing over the defence of their State to a mercenary and his ready-made army, naming him Captain-General and drawing up the condotta or contract from which he and his followers got their name. Meanwhile the citizens settled down to earning the money to pay this condottiere and reserving their own abundant martial energies for ruthless political infighting.

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