GEOLOGY Vol. IV Geology of Europe - Franz Neubauer
GEOLOGY OF EUROPE
Franz Neubauer
Institute of Geology and Paleontology, University of Salzburg, Austria
Keywords: continental crust, crustal growth, tectonics, resources, earth history, seismic
risk, plate tectonics, active tectonics, volcanism, hydrocarbon
Contents
1. Introduction
2. Geological and Geophysical Overview
3. Laurentian Basement
4. Fennosarmatia and the East European Platform
4.1. Overview
4.2. Baltic Shield
4.3. Podolic Shield
4.4. East European Platform
5. Late Neoproterozoic and Paleozoic Orogens
5.1. Cadomides
5.2. Caledonides
5.3. Variscides
5.4. Skythides
5.5. Uralides
6. Mesozoic-Tertiary Orogens
6.1. Cimmerian Orogen
6.2. Alpine-Mediterranean Mountain Belts
6.3. Mediterranean Sea
7. Post-Variscan Sedimentary Basins
7.1. Permo-Mesozoic and Cenozoic Sedimentary Basins
7.2. Moesian Platform
7.3. North Caspian Trough
7.4. Passive Continental Margins Facing towards the Atlantic Ocean
8. Cenozoic Intraplate Magmatism
9. Quaternary Glaciation and Periglacial Deposits
10. Resources
10.1. Coal
10.2. Hydrocarbon
10.3. Mineral Resources
10.4. Culturally Interesting Mineral Raw Materials
Glossary
Bibliography
Biographical Sketch
Summary
The European continent is part of the Eurasian continent and is separated from Asia by
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the late Paleozoic Uralian orogen. The European continent comprises two major sectors,
Fennosarmatia in Eastern Europe with an Archean/Early Proterozoic basement and a
Middle Proterozoic to Tertiary cover, and Central/Western/Southern Europe with
Paleozoic orogens, which accreted since Silurian towards Fennosarmatia. Both sectors
are separated by the Caledonian thrust front and the Tornquist-Teisseyre fault (Trans-
European suture zone), the later representing a wide zone of superposed fault-suture-
type structures. Southern Europe and the Mediterranean Sea represent a geodynamically
active area including microcontinents and domains with ocean floor. This area also
comprises a strong seismicity and seismic hazards due to present-day activity of
subduction zones, transform faults, thrust systems and normal faults.
The European continent formed by several major steps of evolution. Archean nuclei
have been created and amalgamated by the formation of Late Archean and Early
Proterozoic greenstone belts and granulite-gneiss terrains. Three major microcontinents
amalgamated during a ca. 1.8 Ga old orogeny to Fennosarmatia (Eastern Europe), a
craton which represents the stable craton since that time and which unified with North
America to Laurussia during the Caledonian orogeny (ca. 400 Ma). Proterozoic rift
systems developed within Fennosarmatia and platform sediments were deposited on it
since Middle Proterozoic times. The stepwise accretion of orogenic belts occurred along
margins, including the Timan (ca. 600 Ma), Caledonian (ca. 450-400 Ma) and Variscan-
Scythian orogens (ca. 360-310 Ma). In contrast, the Precambrian basement is
subordinate and mainly of Late Proterozoic age in Central/Western/Southern Europe.
There, crust formation reflects the stepwise accretion of progressively younger orogenic
belts. These include Cadomian (ca. 670 520 Ma), Caledonian (ca. 500 400 Ma),
Variscan (380-300 Ma), Cimmerian (ca. 210-180 Ma) and Alpine (120-0 Ma) orogenic
belts. The formation of sedimentary basins postdating each of these orogens is partly
related to rifting and the opening history of the Tethyan and Atlantic oceans. These
sedimentary basins include the North and South German, Paris, Aquitan and North Sea
basins as well as the Moesian platform.
During the Quaternary, glacial processes due to the formation of a large inland ice
shield largely influenced the landscape of Northern and Central Europe.
1. Introduction
Europe is part of the Eurasian continent and comprises as a geological entity the
continental units extending from the Urals and Caucasus mountain ranges as limiting
boundaries against Asia to the passive continental margins of the Atlantic Ocean in the
west and the Mediterranean and Black Seas in the south, and the Barents Sea in the
north.
The geological structure of the European continent is highly diverse and reflects the
stepwise growth from an Archean nucleus in northeastern Europe to the recent accretion
of units in the south, along margins of the Mediterranean Sea. Many classical concepts
of geology have been developed in Europe, based on observations of European geology.
This review intends to present a short and concise overview of the geological and
geophysical structure of Europe. The main intention is to show how the geological
structure developed through earth history and how it influences human life including
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their development during pre-historical and historical evolution as both topography and
the distribution of geological resources control human activity. Consequently, some
attention is paid to the geologically interesting cultural heritage of ancient mines as this
is also within the present focus of activity of the United Nations.
2. Geological and Geophysical Overview
Figure 1. Simplified geological map of Europe showing the main orogenic systems.
A.M. - Armorican massif, B.M. Bohemian massif, F.Z. fault zone, M.C. French
Massif Central, O.M.Z. Oslo-Mjösen Zone, R.G. Rhine graben, T.B.
Transylvanian basin
Europe is divided into a number of major tectonic units that represent a sequence of
continental growth towards the southwest since Late Archaean times (Fig. 1). These
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units largely differ in the present-day geophysical properties and topography as well
(Figs. 1, 2). Large portions of Eastern/Central and Western/Southern Europe are
covered by flat-lying Permian to Neogene platform sediments. They overlie a pre-Late
Carboniferous plutono-metamorphic basement. The distribution of the basement
structures is shown in Figure 1, and 4 -5. The structural units of Europe include (Figure
1):
1. Fennosarmatia is the old continental nucleus, which mainly formed during
Archaean and Early Proterozoic times. The cratonic basement is exposed in the
Baltic and Ukrainic (or Podolic) shields whereas other portions are covered by Late
Proterozoic to Quaternary sediments of the East European Platform and the North
Caspian Trough.
2. Small remnants of Laurentia with Early Proterozoic age are exposed in
northwestern Scotland and the Hebrides.
3. The Caledonian belt (also Caledonides or Paleo-Europe) overrides the Baltic Shield
on its northwestern margins and the Laurentian cratonic units on its southeastern
margin. The Caledonian belt trends northeast-southwest and comprises mainly Early
Paleozoic island arc, ophiolite and passive continental margin sequences which
finally collided during the Late Silurian (Caledonian) orogeny. A further unit is the
largely hidden Avalonian microcontinent which forms an east-west trending belt and
which has been accreted to Fennosarmatia during the Late Silurian, too.
4. The Variscan orogenic belt (also Variscides or Meso-Europe) was formed during the
Carboniferous. The belt extends from the Iberian Peninsula through Western and
Central Europe to the Tornquist-Teisseyre Zone (which is recently also coined as
Trans-European Suture Zone) at the south-western margin of Fennosarmatia. The
present southern limit of the Variscan belt is the Alpine (orogenic) front. But it has
to be noted that the basement within the Alpides of Neo-Europe has been formed as
part of the Variscides, too.
5. Skythides represents the extension of the Variscides along the southern margin of
Fennsarmatia and is mostly included in Alpine orogenic belts.
6. Small remnants of a Cimmerian orogen are preserved in southeastern Europe
forming a belt extending from Dobrudja via the southern Crimea peninsula to the
Caucasus.
7. The highly arcuate Alpine belt (also Alpides or Neo-Europe) comprises the
Cretaceous to Cenozoic mountain ranges which formed through accretion of
Gondwana-derived continental microplates to stable Europe. The Alpides extend
from the Betic Cordillera on the Iberian Peninsula through Sicily, the Apennines,
Alps, Dinarides, Carpathians to Balkan and Hellenides and can be traced further
towards the east as part of the Alpine-Himalayan orogenic system . The structural
complexities of the Alpine belt arise from the motion of a number of microplates,
the active subduction of oceanic crust and the opening of back arc basins with the
formation of new oceanic crust. The Alpidic orogeny is not completed; active
tectonic processes are still ongoing, as the Mediterranean Sea is not closed.
8. The Mediterranean Sea is a complex system of continental microplates like the
Adriatic (Apulian) microplate, the Corso-Sardinic and Balearic blocks, which are
separated by Oligocene-Neogene back arc basins in the western Mediterranean and
Neotethyan, Mesozoic oceanic crust forming the Eastern Mediterranean Sea which
is presently subducting beneath the Hellenic arc.
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9. Variscan Europe is partly covered by a number of Late Paleozoic to Cenozoic
extensional and rift basins of variable ages. The basins include the Oslo-Mjösen
Zone, a Permian rift with exclusively volcanic rocks, Late Paleozoic-Mesozoic
North-German, the Mesozoic North Sea, South German and Paris basins, and the
Cretaceous to Cenozoic Aquitan and Ebro basins. The Rhone-Rhine and Rhine rifts
are of mainly Oligocene-Miocene age and formed in response to Alpine orogeny.
10. The Moesian platform is a further, independent little microplate that formed during
the Late Cretaceous opening of the Black Sea. It likely split off from the southern
Fennosarmatian margin and comprises a Late Proterozoic basement.
11. The Black Sea is located at the interface between the Alpine and Cimmerian
orogenic belts. The western Black Sea is underlain by oceanic crust of supposed
Late Cretaceous to Paleogene age. In contrast, the eastern Black Sea comprises
orogenic crust which has been shortened by Cenozoic tectonic processes.
12. Late Mesozoic and Cenozoic anorogenic intraplate volcanism is widespread in
northwestern and western Europe. Volcanism and shallow plutons of Late
Cretaceous and Early Tertiary age formed in response to initial stages of the
opening of North Atlantic sectors of the Atlantic Ocean. Hot-spot related volcanism
is widespread in Ireland, Scotland, the French Central Massif, the Rhenic Shield and
the northwestern Bohemian Massif.
13. Finally, a passive continental margin and slope is facing towards the Atlantic Ocean
and Barents Sea. The passive continental margin was formed at different times
during rifting and subsequent break-up between Middle-Late Cretaceous along
Iberian sectors of the Atlantic margin, and during Late Cretaceous to Paleogene in
northern sectors of the Atlantic margin.
In terms of geophysics various properties of the European crust are well investigated,
e.g. Moho depths and heat flow. The Moho is at 35-55 km depth beneath
Fennosarmatia, except beneath Phanerozoic aulacogens which incised into the East
European platform. The Moho beneath the Caledonides and Variscides is at an
intermediate level (ca. 32-35 km). In areas with Mesozoic-Tertiary rifting the crust is
thinned with mostly linear features monitoring the surface geological structure. There,
the Moho depth is as shallow as 22-25 km beneath the surface. In contrast, the Moho is
at a depth of ca. 50-60 km beneath the Alpine mountain ranges indicating pronounced,
still-existing mountain roots. The Urals are interpreted as preserving the Late Paleozoic
mountain root. In contrast, back arc basins like the Aegean Sea and Pannonian basin or
extensional collapse basins have a much shallower Moho, reaching a shallow level, e.g.,
23 km beneath the Pannonian basin.
Fennosarmatia shows a low geothermal gradient (ca. 8 °C/km), low heat flow (30-50
Wm-2sec-1) and partly no asthenosphere beneath it (Figure 2). In general, the
lithospheric base is at a level of 200 kilometers, in contrast to Paleo- and Meso-Europe
where the lithosphere is ca. 100-120 kilometers thick. The lithosphere is also thinned
beneath rifts and back arc basins.
The topography of Europe reflects Late Paleozoic to Quaternary tectonic processes. The
Fennosarmatian topography is interpreted as recording intense peneplanation active
since Late Proterozoic times. The present uplift of the Baltic Shield and Caledonides is
caused by isostatic unloading due to melting of the ice shield formed during the last
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inland ice glaciation. The Variscides show a rugged topography with peneplained and
uplifted basement massifs and smooth hilly basin areas in between. Together, these
features are interpreted as recording young, Late Neogene to Quaternary uplift in the
order of several hundred meters due to compressional stresses induced by the Alpine
orogeny.
Mountain ranges of Neo-Europe are as high as ca. 4000 meters, the Caucasus near 6000
meters, and reflect Cenozoic, still ongoing tectonic processes. In addition, an overall
uplift still of enigmatic origin in the order of several hundred meters is observed in
these belts and adjacent basins including the margins of the Mediterranean Sea.
In the following, various structures are described from the oldest to youngest units.
Maps with pre-Late Carboniferous basement are shown in Figures 1 and 4-7. The
sequence also gives a model of the tectonic evolution of Europe, which shows the
stepwise growth during the history. Note that evolutionary models have some
significant uncertainties going back in time. Note furthermore that some new models
mainly for the Precambrian evolution have just been developed, which are not the result
of convergence of ideas.
Figure 2. Heat flow map of the European continent. Distribution displays a pronounced
difference between the old, cratonic Fennosarmatia with a low heat flow, and
Phanerozoic orogenic belts of Central, Western and Southern Europe
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3. Laurentian Basement
Small remnants of North American basement rocks collectively referred to as
Laurentian basement are exposed in northwestern Scotland. These include mainly Early
Proterozoic Scourian and Dalradian gneisses, which are overlain by Late Proterozoic
red beds ( Oldest Red ). These were overthrusted along the ductile Moine thrust by the
Caledonian orogenic wedge during the Late Silurian.
Figure 3. Map showing distribution of recent earthquakes. Note the tectonically active
Mediterranean Sea and surrounding mountain belts. (Modified after Blundell et al.,
1992).
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4. Fennosarmatia And The East European Platform
4.1. Overview
Eastern and Northern Europe comprises a Precambrian basement of mainly Late
Archaean to Early Proterozoic age with some subordinate, Late Proterozoic (Sveko-
Norwegian) portions at its westernmost surface exposure within the Baltic Shield (Figs.
1, 4, 5). The Precambrian basement is exposed in two shields, the Baltic and the
Podolian/Ukrainian Shields. The Precambrian basement of Eastern and Northern
Europe is involved along its northwestern and southwestern margins in Phanerozoic
orogens, specifically in the Caledonides.
Numerous boreholes penetrate the basement of the East European platform so that
lithologies and zonation are reasonably well known. Geophysical signatures allow the
tracing of major structures over large distances. The Fennosarmatian basement as a
whole is divided into three major blocks which were accreted to each other during Late
Paleoproterozoic tectonic processes. Fennosarmatia comprises Fennoscandia with an
Archaean core and a number of Proterozoic orogens in the southwest, Sarmatia with a
large Archaean core (mainly amphibolite- and granulite facies rocks of an age of 3.7 to
3.0 Ga) and a NE-striking Paleoproterozoic orogen along its northern margin which is
intruded by the Osnitsk-Mikashevichi Igneous Belt (with ca. 2.0-1.95 Ma old plutons)
and the Volgo-Uralia block with mainly Archaean rocks, too. Fennoscandia is exposed
in the Baltic Shield, Sarmatia in the Podolic Shield. The Kursk magnetic anomaly is an
extremely large area with Early Proterozoic banded iron formations belonging to
Sarmatia. The Volgo-Uralia block is completely covered by younger sedimentary
successions.
Figure 4. Map displaying the principal basement terranes of Fennosarmatia. (Modified
after Bogdanova et al., 1996).
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Bibliography
Blundell, D., Freeman, R. & Mueller, S., eds., 1992. A continent revealed. The European Geotraverse. -
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GEOLOGY Vol. IV Geology of Europe - Franz Neubauer
Moores, E.M. and Fairbridge, R.W. (eds.): Encyclopedia of European and Asian regional geology,
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Biographical Sketch
Fanz Neubauer was educated at the University of Graz and is now a professor of geology at the
University of Salzburg in Austria. He has an international reputation for the regional geology of the
eastern Alps. However he has also worked extensively in other European regions, in particular the
Carpathians. More recently, he has also worked in the Caribbean and in Tibet.
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