Purinergic Signalling (2007) 3:71 81
DOI 10.1007/s11302-006-9038-7
REVIEW
Extracellular NAD and ATP: Partners in immune
cell modulation
Friedrich Haag & Sahil Adriouch & Anette Bra &
Caroline Jung & Sina Mller & Felix Scheuplein &
Peter Bannas & Michel Seman & Friedrich Koch-Nolte
Received: 8 February 2006 /Accepted: 22 October 2006 / Published online: 9 January 2007
#
Springer Science + Business Media B.V. 2007
Abstract Extracellular NAD and ATP exert multiple, par- inflamed tissue, NICD may inhibit bystander activation of
tially overlapping effects on immune cells. Catabolism of both unprimed T cells, reducing the risk of autoimmunity. In
nucleotides by extracellular enzymes keeps extracellular draining lymph nodes, NICD may eliminate regulatory T cells
concentrations low under steady-state conditions and gener- or provide space for the preferential expansion of primed
ates metabolites that are themselves signal transducers. ATP cells, and thus help to augment an immune response.
and its metabolites signal through purinergic P2 and P1
. .
receptors, whereas extracellular NAD exerts its effects by Key words ADP-ribosylation ADP-Ribosyltransferases
. . .
serving as a substrate for ADP-ribosyltransferases (ARTs) and apoptosis ATP. ectoenzymes extracellular purines
.
NAD glycohydrolases/ADPR cyclases like CD38 and NAD posttranslational protein modification
CD157. Both nucleotides activate the P2X7 purinoceptor,
although by different mechanisms and with different charac- Abbreviations
teristics. While ATP activates P2X7 directly as a soluble ADP adenosine diphosphate
ligand, activation via NAD occurs by ART-dependent ADP- ADPR Adenosine diphosphate ribose
ribosylation of cell surface proteins, providing an immobilised AMP Adenosine monophosphate
ligand. P2X7 activation by either route leads to phosphati- ART ADP-ribosyltransferase
dylserine exposure, shedding of CD62L, and ultimately to ATP Adenosine triphosphate
cell death. Activation by ATP requires high micromolar con- E-NPP Ecto-nucleotide pyrophosphatase/
centrations of nucleotide and is readily reversible, whereas phosphodiesterase
NAD-dependent stimulation begins at low micromolar con- E-NTPD Ecto-nucleoside triphosphate
centrations and is more stable. Under conditions of cell stress diphosphohydrolase
or inflammation, ATP and NAD are released into the extra- FoxP3 Forkhead box P3
cellular space from intracellular stores by lytic and non-lytic NAADP Nicotinic acid adenine dinucleotide phosphate
mechanisms, and may serve as danger signals to alert the NAD Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide
immune response to tissue damage. Since ART expression is NADP Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate
limited to nave/resting T cells, P2X7-mediated NAD-induced NICD NAD-induced cell death
cell death (NICD) specifically targets this cell population. In PARP Poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase
PS Phosphatidyl serine
: : : : :
F. Haag ( ) S. Adriouch A. Bra C. Jung S. Mller
: :
F. Scheuplein P. Bannas F. Koch-Nolte
Institute of Immunology, University Hospital,
ATP and NAD in the extracellular compartment:
Martinistr. 52, 20246 Hamburg, Germany
e-mail: haag@uke.uni-hamburg.de From their release to the induction of specific signalling
: :
F. Haag S. Adriouch M. Seman
ATP and NAD+ are classic intracellular metabolites with
INSERM U519- EA1556, Facult de Mdecine et de Pharmacie,
center-stage roles in energy metabolism and electron
Universit de Rouen,
F-76183 Rouen Cedex, France transfer. In recent years, it has become evident that these
72 Purinergic Signalling (2007) 3:71 81
purine nucleotides play important roles also in the recently been suggested to serve as a danger signal that
extracellular environment, i.e., as substrates for a flurry may alert the immune system to tissue damage [8 10].
of nucleotide-metabolising ectoenzymes, and, in the case
of ATP, also as a ligand for cell surface receptors (Figs. 1
and 2). Immune modulation by extracellular ATP
Biosynthesis of NAD presumably takes place in several
locations in the cell [1]. Under physiological conditions Once released, extracellular ATP and NAD can be degraded
most (more than 70%) of the cellular NAD content is into further metabolites such as ADP, AMP or adenosine by
stored and is utilised in the mitochondria primarily for extracellular enzymes, i.e., ecto-nucleoside triphosphate
metabolic purposes. In the cytoplasm and in the nucleus diphosphohydrolase (E-NTPDs), ecto-nucleotide pyrophos-
NAD serves cell signalling functions, as a precursor for phatase/phosphodiesterase (E-NPPs), and the ecto-52 -nucle-
calcium mobilising metabolites and as a substrate for two otidase CD73 (Figs. 1, 2). ATP or its by-products activate
families of nuclear enzymes, i.e., poly-ADP-ribosyl different members of the purinoceptor family of receptors.
polymerases (PARPs) and the sirtuin (homologues of Purinoceptors comprise adenosine-sensitive P1 receptors
the yeast silent mating type information regulation 2 (A1, A2a, A2b, and A3) and P2 receptors, which are
(Sir2) gene) family of NAD-dependant lysine deacetylases, activated by ATP, ADP, UTP, UDP or UDP-glucose [11,
both of which play important roles in coordinating DNA 12] (and NAD, see note added in proof). P2 receptors are
repair, regulating transcription levels and controlling pro- further divided into two groups: the G protein-coupled
gression towards apoptosis [2 4]. Under pathophysiologi- seven-transmembrane P2Y receptors (P2Y1, -2, -4, -6, -11,
cal conditions, such as ischemia, oxidative stress or -12, -13, -14), and the P2X ligand-gated ion channels
DNA-damaging agents, cells release their mitochondrial (P2X1-7) [13, 14]. Triggering of purinoceptors by their
NAD content to the cytoplasm and the nucleus by still ligands regulates important physiological functions such as
unknown mechanisms [4]. It is not surprising, then, that platelet aggregation, local regulation of blood pressure,
NAD plays an essential role in the cellular response to modulation of cardiac functions in ischemic conditions or
stress. regulation of the development of inflammation [11, 15, 16].
Similarly, following the induction of cellular stress part Regulation of immune functions by ATP and its
of this cellular content of NAD and ATP may be released metabolites has been reviewed elsewhere [8, 10]. ATP can
into the extracellular space. This may occur by several in principle transmit signals through several different
mechanisms involving active exocytosis or diffusion receptors, including the complete P2X family and a
through transmembrane transporters in living cells or subgroup of P2Y receptors (P2Y1, 2, 11, 12, 13) [12].
passive leakage across the membrane in dying cells [5 7]. These receptors differ greatly in their relative sensitivities to
Of note, release of purines by injured or dying cells has ATP, with EC50s in the nanomolar (P2Y), low micromolar
Fig. 1 Chemical structure of
ATP and NAD, and sites of
cleavage by different
ecto-enzymes
Purinergic Signalling (2007) 3:71 81 73
receptors. Extracellular NAD serves as a substrate for cell-surface
Fig. 2 Action of extracellular ATP and NAD and their metabolites on
ADP-ribosyltransferases (ART2), or is hydrolyzed to ADPribose by
different cell surface receptors. Extracellular ATP present in high,
CD38. CD38 can also synthesise cyclic ADP-ribose, a known
intermediate, or low concentrations can activate P2X7, other P2X, or
intracellular calcium mobilising agent. It is not known how cADPR
P2Y receptors, respectively, or is hydrolysed by the sequential action
gains access to the intracellular compartment. NAD (and ATP) may
of ecto-nucleoside triphosphate diphosphohydrolases (E-NTPDs) such
also be hydrolysed by ecto-nucleotide pyrophosphatase/phosphodies-
as CD39 and ecto-52 -nucleotidase (CD73) to ADP and adenosine
terases (E-NPPs) to AMP, which in turn is hydrolysed by CD73 to
(ADO). For clarity, P2X receptors other than P2X7 are not shown,
adenosine. See text for details
since their presence on immune cells is not well documented. ADP can
act on P2Y receptors, and adenosine can activate G protein-coupled P1
(most P2X) or high micromolar (P2X7) ranges [8]. The mainly pro-inflammatory effects, such as the processing
situation is further complicated by the fact that extracellular and release of interleukin- (IL-) 1 and IL-18 [17, 18], in
ATP is rapidly metabolised, and its break-down products, dendritic cells and macrophages, and induces cell death in
notably ADP and adenosine, have signalling functions of T cells. Activation of P2X7 also stimulates the production
their own through different receptors. Both pro- and anti- of tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFa) in microglial cells
inflammatory effects of ATP on immune cells have been [19]. Low concentrations of ATP present during the
reported, depending on the cell type and the available maturation of DCs reduce their capacity to induce Th1-
concentration of ATP. In general, P2X7, which requires typical responses in primed T cells [20, 21]. These anti-
high ATP concentrations acting for a short time, mediates inflammatory effects may be due either to direct action on
74 Purinergic Signalling (2007) 3:71 81
ADP-ribose. It is conceivable that NAD may exert distant effects by
Fig. 3 Hypothetical scheme of the interplay of purine sensors during
reaching lymph nodes draining inflammatory sites in physiologically
an immune response. ATP and NAD are released locally at sites of
relevant concentrations. Both ATP and NAD are degraded by
tissue injury or inflammation. At high concentrations, ATP acts on the
metabolising enyzmes to yield other signalling molecules, notably
P2X7R receptor to exert pro-inflammatory effects on antigen present-
adenosine (ADO), which exerts predominantly anti-inflammatory
ing cells or to kill T cells; at low concentrations it acts on other P2
effects through P1 receptors of the A2-subfamily. See text for details
receptors to downregulate the initiation of Th1 responses. NAD is used
by ARTs on T cells to activate P2X7, or by CD38 to generate cyclic
some P2Y receptors like P2Y11, or by adenosine signalling CD157 enzyme, possesses NAD-glycohydrolase and ADP-
through P1 receptors (Figs. 2 and 3). ribose cyclase activities. They catalyse cleavage of NAD
into ADP-ribose or cyclic ADP-ribose and nicotinamide
[22], as well as the transglycosidation of NADP and
Immune modulation by extracellular NAD nicotinic acid to yield NAADP [23]. Cyclic ADP-ribose
and NAADP are newly recognised second messenger
Similar to ATP, NAD is also degraded in the extracellular molecules, which trigger calcium release from IP3-inde-
compartment, giving rise to the generation of metabolites pendent intracellular stores, and which may thus play
like cyclic ADP-ribose or adenosine that are active signal important regulatory roles [24, 25]. However, it is contro-
transducers (Fig. 2). In contrast to ATP, signalling through versial whether these second messengers are generated by
intact NAD does not involve specific membrane receptors extracellular CD38 and are then translocated to the cytosol
(see note added in proof). Nevertheless, NAD may regulate by hitherto unknown mechanisms, or whether they are
cellular functions through two known enzyme families. The generated from intracellular NAD by an intracellular
first family, comprising CD38 and the functionally related isoform of CD38. CD38 may also be involved in the
Purinergic Signalling (2007) 3:71 81 75
regulation of immune functions by limiting the substrate ultimately cell death [38, 39]. Of the P2Y receptors, P2Y6
availability for ADP-ribosyltransferases (see below) [26]. and P2Y14 have been described on T cells [40, 41], but
Mice lacking the CD38 glycohydrolase/ADP-ribosyl cy- these receptors are sensitive to UDP and UDP-glucose,
clase show an impaired antibody response to T-cell respectively.
dependent antigens [27], which may be due to a defect P2X7 is also expressed on antigen-presenting cells,
in the migratory capacity of dendritic cells [28]. including dendritic cells and macrophages, where it
The second family of enzymes mediating signalling by mediates release of the non-classically secreted cytokines
NAD comprises the mono(ADP-ribosyl)transferases IL-1 and IL-18 [18, 42], and promotes phagosome/
(ARTs), which are structurally related to ADP-ribosylating lysosome fusion [43 45]. P2X7 is not expressed on resting
bacterial toxins. These enzymes catalyse a posttranslational B cells in the mouse, but in the human has been identified
modification of proteins by transferring the ADP-ribose on a subset of chronic B-cell lymphomas (B-CLL) [46, 47].
moiety from NAD to specific amino acids, e.g., arginine Immature dendritic cells also express the P2Y11 receptor
residues, on target proteins [29]. This family contains five [48]. This receptor, which is sensitive to nanomolar
known mammalian members, ART1-ART5, which are GPI- concentrations of ATP (see note added in proof), has been
anchored membrane proteins (ART1-ART4) or secreted implicated in several responses of DCs to ATP. Low doses
enzymes (ART5) [30]. Human ART1 was recently assigned of ATP synergise with other stimuli like TNFa or LPS to
the CD number CD296 [31]; it is expressed by activated enhance DC maturation, but the net effect is to reduce the
granulocytes as well as by skeletal muscle, heart, and production of IL-12p70 and increase the production of IL-
epithelial cells [32 34]. ART4 has been identified as the 10 [49]. As is the case for the anti-inflammatory A2
carrier of the Dombrock blood group alloantigens and was subgroup of P1 receptors (see below), stimulation of P2Y11
recently assigned the CD number CD297 [35]. ART4 is causes an elevation of intracellular cAMP in DCs, which
expressed prominently by erythrocytes and at lower levels mediates its effects on DC maturation [48]. Using a
also on monocytes and splenic macrophages. Only ART1, different biochemical pathway, P2Y11 also inhibits the
ART2 and ART5 have been shown so far to possess migratory response of immature DCs to chemotactic
arginine-specific activity, while ART3 and ART4 may have gradients, causing these cells to remain longer at sites of
acquired a new target specificity. Akin to the well-known tissue damage [50].
phosphorylation reaction, posttranslational protein modifi- The G protein-coupled P1 receptors fall into two
cation by ADP-ribosylation regulates (inhibits or activates) functional groups, which serve to lower (A1 and A3
the functions of target proteins [30, 36]. The ART enzyme receptors) or to increase (A2a and A2b receptors) intracel-
family members thus represent new players in the epige- lular levels of cyclic AMP (cAMP). A1/A3 receptors are
netic regulation of protein functions. expressed on immature DCs, where they induce calcium
It has been shown that ART2, like many other GPI- flux and promote chemotaxis [51, 52]. A2a/b receptors
anchored proteins, is segregated into specialised cholester- down-regulate the production of IL-12 in LPS-matured
ol- and ganglioside-enriched microdomains on the cell DCs and thus inhibit the differentiation of naive CD4+ T
surface termed lipid rafts [37]. Localisation into lipid rafts cells towards a Th1 phenotype. T cells also express A2a
is important for the activity of ART2, presumably by receptors. Stimulation of these receptors by adenosine
focussing it on its target molecules. Indeed, substantial inhibits TCR-mediated T cell proliferation and upregulation
fractions of two known non-GPI-anchored target proteins of of the IL-2 receptor, as well as most of the effector
ART2, i.e., LFA-1 and P2X7, may also be recruited into functions of cytotoxic T cells [53, 54]. The A2a/b receptors
lipid rafts [37]. are the most prominent P1 receptors on immune cells, and
are responsible for the dominant anti-inflammatory effects
of adenosine on the immune system (recently reviewed in
Purine sensors on cells of the immune system [55]). Nucleotide-metabolising enzymes are widely distrib-
uted among cells of the immune system. Ecto-ATPase and
Cells of the immune system express a variety of purine 52 -nucleotidase activities, which are sufficient to convert
sensors on their surfaces, either as purinoreceptors or as ATP into adenosine, are found on many lymphocytes and
ecto-enzymes that metabolise purine nucleotides (Fig. 3). antigen presenting cells. It is worth noting that ecto-
For many of the molecules, a detailed expression analysis is adenylate kinase, the enzyme catalysing the reverse
still hampered by a lack of suitable antibodies. pathway, i.e., the generation of ATP from extracellular
The only ATP-sensitive purinoreceptor that has been adenosine, is also present on the surface of lymphocytes
positively identified on peripheral T cells to date is P2X7. [56]. Adenosine can also be generated from extracellular
In these cells, P2X7 mediates ATP- and NAD-dependent NAD by the sequential action of E-NPPs and 52 -nucleotid-
phosphatidyl serine (PS) exposure, CD62L shedding, and ase. Although the expression of E-NPPs on immune cells
76 Purinergic Signalling (2007) 3:71 81
has not been studied in detail, it is of note that E-NPP1, also data implied that the downstream effector was sensitive to
known as PC-1, was originally identified as a marker for the modification of NAD in the adenine group, a property
plasma cells. Finally, immune cells express NAD-depen- known to hold true for purinoceptors. As adenosine itself
dent NADase and ADP-ribosyltransferase activities. In the was unable to trigger apoptosis of T lymphocytes, it was
mouse, the CD38 NADase/ADPR-cyclase is expressed on poorly conceivable that the effector belonged to the P1
B cells and other antigen-presenting cells, and on activated, purinoceptors. Conversely, the fact that a high dose of ATP
but not resting T cells [26, 27]. Conversely, the ART2 ADP- is able to induce apoptosis of T cells suggested that P2
ribosyltransferases are expressed on resting mouse T cells, purinoceptors could be involved. Within the P2 receptor
but not on activated ones or on antigen-presenting cells. family, P2X7 was a good candidate, because, firstly, P2X7
is expressed on T lymphocytes and, secondly, because
P2X7 triggering is known to induce apoptosis [61, 62].
The biological functions of ARTs and their substrate, Several lines of evidence demonstrated that P2X7 does
NAD, in immune regulation indeed mediate NAD-induced apoptosis as a consequence
of ADP-ribosylation of membrane proteins by ART2.
Extracellular NAD selectively induces apoptosis of mouse Foremost, pharmacological studies showed that the P2X7
T cells (both CD4+ and CD8+), but not of B cells [39]. inhibitors KN-62 and oATP block NAD-induced apoptosis.
Interestingly, apoptosis is observed with NAD concentra- Furthermore NAD, like ATP, was able to induce other
tions as low as 1 micromolar. Furthermore, sensitivity to known effects characteristic of P2X7 activation, such as the
NAD is dependent on the activation state of lymphocytes. formation of non-selective membrane pores permeable to
Indeed, in vitro stimulation of T cells with mitogens prior to large molecules up to 900 Da, the exposition of PS on the
NAD incubation results in relative insensitivity to NAD- outer leaflet of the cell membrane, and the shedding of
induced apoptosis. Similarly, in vivo-activated cells, present CD62L. Moreover NAD, like ATP, induced calcium uptake
in freshly isolated T-cell preparations, do not respond to that could be inhibited by the P2X7 inhibitor KN-62.
NAD treatment, resulting in enrichment of CD44high, Finally, the generation of antibodies directed against mouse
CD62Llow activated /memory T cells in the surviving P2X7 allowed us to show that P2X7 is ADP-ribosylated in
fraction. Thus, NAD selectively induces apoptosis of naive the presence of NAD and is, therefore, directly targeted by
mouse T lymphocytes [57]. It has recently been shown that ART2 [39].
sensitivity to NAD-induced cell death is especially high in Further confirmation of the involvement of P2X7 in
CD4+/CD25+ regulatory T cells expressing the transcrip- NAD-induced apoptosis was brought by examination of the
tion factor forkhead box P3 (FoxP3) [58]. gene coding for P2X7 in C57BL/6 mice. Cloning and
What is the molecular mechanism underlying NAD- sequencing of the P2rx7 gene showed that these mice
induced apoptosis? Apart from NAD, none of the structur- harbour an inactivating mutation (P451L) within the
ally related molecules tested (i.e., nucleosides, nucleotides cytoplasmic domain of the receptor. Transfection studies
or products of NAD metabolism) induced apoptosis in the in HEK cells showed that the P451L mutation severely
micromolar range. Therefore, NAD must induce apoptosis affects P2X7 functions like pore formation and calcium flux
through direct interaction with membrane proteins like in response to ATP in comparison to the wild type [63]. It
ARTs, which are able to use extracellular NAD. Consistent seemed likely, therefore, that the P451L mutation in P2X7
with this interpretation, ART2 knock-out mice are com- accounted for the resistance to NAD-induced apoptosis in T
pletely resistant to NAD-induced apoptosis [59]. However, lymphocytes from C57BL/6 mice. The P451L mutation in
although C57BL/6 mice express high levels of ART2, T the mouse is reminiscent of a naturally occurring E496A
lymphocytes from this strain are relatively resistant to the mutation in the cytoplasmic domain of the human P2X7,
effects of NAD. Therefore, ART2.2 is required, but not which similarly affects the function of the receptor [64].
sufficient to account for NAD-induced apoptosis, and Collectively, these studies identify ADP-ribosylation of
another essential factor must be involved in the process [57]. P2X7 as an alternative way of activating P2X7 in T
This downstream effector was identified by pharmaco- lymphocytes [39]. Although P2X7 has been implicated in
logical studies [39]. Etheno-NAD, an NAD analogue important cellular functions, it is not fully clear how it is
modified in the adenine moiety, can be used as a substrate activated in vivo. Near millimolar concentrations of
by ART2 resulting in etheno-ADP-ribosylation of target exogenous ATP are required to elicit P2X7 activation in
proteins [60]. However, etheno-NAD, like the NAD vitro [65, 66]. In this context, ART2-catalysed ADP-
analogues NHD or NGD, was unable to induce apoptosis. ribosylation, requiring only micromolar concentrations of
Furthermore, pre-treatment with etheno-NAD, NHD or NAD, represents an appealing alternative pathway for the
NGD prevented subsequent NAD-induced apoptosis. These activation of P2X7. NAD-dependent activation of P2X7
Purinergic Signalling (2007) 3:71 81 77
constitutes a novel mechanism for inducing T lymphocyte Experiments in vitro demonstrated that cell lysates
apoptosis. It is of note that this mechanism only affects contain amounts of NAD sufficient to induce ART2-
resting T lymphocytes [39], consistent with the observation dependent apoptosis of T lymphocytes [39]. These data
that ART2 is shed from the cell surface by the action of a suggest indirectly that NAD may be released in vivo by
metalloproteinase following T-cell activation [67]. Other dead cells resulting from accidental tissue damage or
known apoptosis-triggering pathways in T lymphocytes consequent to the activity of the immune system itself.
affect either immature T cells during their development in Notably, T cells from ART2-/- mice were not affected in
the thymus, or activated mature T lymphocytes, a process these experiments, indicating that at least at the
known as AICD (activation-induced cell death). NAD-induced concentrations employed the lysates did not contain
apoptosis or NICD (NAD-induced cell death) is the first sufficient quantities of ATP to trigger the P2X7 receptor.
apoptosis pathway described affecting naive T lymphocytes. This is consistent with the observation that activation of
P2X7 is also expressed on macrophages and dendritic P2X7 occurs at low doses of NAD, but requires a threshold
cells. Recent studies have underlined the central role of concentration of ATP [39, 57].
P2X7 in inflammation by controlling IL-1 maturation and The hypothesis that purines are actively secreted from
release [42]. Furthermore, P2X7 may play a role in the living cells and function as neurotransmitters was first
elimination of intracellular pathogens such as mycobacteria formulated by G. Burnstock in 1972 [70]. Since then,
or Chlamydia by promoting phagosome-lysosome fusion many groups have confirmed that ATP, together with other
[43 45]. To date no clear evidence of ART expression on neurotransmitters, is actively released from pre-synaptic
these cell types has been found. It is also not known yet vesicles of so-called purinergic nerves [5]. Recently, a
whether P2X7 can be activated by soluble ARTs or by an similar mechanism has also been described for the release
ART present on the surface of an apposing cell. It thus of NAD. According to this report, NAD can be released in
presently remains unclear whether NAD-dependent activa- combination with ATP and other neurotransmitters from
tion of P2X7 can also occur on these cells. stimulated postganglionic nerve terminals connected to
Activation of P2X7 by ATP or via NAD-dependent blood vessels and urinary bladder [7]. Outside the nervous
ADP-ribosylation shows important differences. First of all, system, other mechanisms can account for the release of
activation via NAD begins at substrate concentrations around purine nucleotides. For example, both NAD and ATP have
1 źM and increases in a dose-dependent manner. By contrast, been reported to be transported through Connexin43 gap-
ATP-mediated activation does not occur below a certain junction hemi-channels [6, 71]. Evidence is accumulating
threshold concentration, which is dependent on the cell type that these channels preferentially open under conditions of
and usually lies above 100 źM. Importantly, brief treatment metabolic or mechanical stress [72, 73]. In vitro, release of
with NAD leads to long lasting activation of P2X7, while purine nucleotides can be induced by moderate osmotic
treatment with ATP in the same conditions produces reversible shocks, application of shear forces and following mechan-
effects [39, 42]. These characteristics are compatible with the ical stress. In all these cases, release of purines appears to
notion of a covalently bound (immobilised ADP-ribose in the be an active process that follows the increase of
case of NAD-mediated activation) versus a soluble (ATP) ligand. intracellular calcium concentration [74, 75]. Finally,
extracellular ATP itself may be a signal for the release
of further ATP through activation of the P2X7 purino-
Endogenous sources of NAD and ATP receptor [76].
Evidence is accumulating linking the release of purine
Under normal conditions the concentrations of ATP and nucleotides into the extracellular compartment with inflam-
NAD in body fluids are below the concentrations required mation or cellular stress. If purine nucleotides are prefer-
to induce P2X7-dependent apoptosis. The concentration of entially released into the extracellular compartment under
NAD for instance is reported to be maintained between 0.1 conditions of cellular stress, it is conceivable that the
to 0.5 źM in the serum of non-treated animals [68, 69]. It is massive recruitment of polymorphonuclear neutrophils and
therefore plausible that extracellular nucleotides are re- macrophages into sites of inflammation, which results in
leased from intracellular sources, where they are present in oxidative stress, tissue damage and massive neutrophil
higher concentrations. As mentioned above, three situations death, may lead to the release of NAD by both lytic and
may lead to the release of nucleotides from intracellular non-lytic mechanisms. In this context it is interesting to
compartments: (1) liberation of intracellular contents by note that the only direct demonstration to date of ADP-
dying cells, (2) exocytosis of nucleotide-containing gran- ribosylation occurring in vivo using endogenous NAD as a
ules and (3) diffusion of these molecules towards the substrate stems from an inflammatory environment. In
extracellular space across membrane channels. humans, the defensin HNP-1 has been reported to be
78 Purinergic Signalling (2007) 3:71 81
ADP-ribosylated in the bronchoalveolar fluid of smokers responses to antigens applied to the skin, pointing to as yet
[77]. This suggests that NAD might be released in undefined modulating effects of ATP during the generation
situations leading to chronic airway inflammation. of these responses [78].
The regulation of purinergic signalling The biological significance of NAD-mediated signalling
by nucleotide-catabolising enzymes
Although several target proteins for ART2 have been
The deleterious effect of the ADP-ribosylation of P2X7 identified, the activation of the P2X7 purinoreceptor is
receptors on naive T lymphocytes raises the question of presently the best-studied example of the functional con-
whether this phenomenon also occurs under physiological sequences of mono-ADP-ribosylation. NAD-dependent,
conditions. In in vitro experiments, more than 70% of naive ART-mediated ADP-ribosylation represents an alternate
T lymphocytes are susceptible to NICD [39, 57]. Obvious- mechanism of P2X7 activation that differs from classical
ly, this does not reflect the situation in a normal mouse. In activation by ATP in important aspects.
living organisms, a flurry of nucleotide-catabolising What may be the biological significance of NAD-
enzymes tightly regulate the concentration of extracellular mediated activation of P2X7? Importantly, it focuses
NAD and ATP. The steady-state concentration of NAD in P2X7 activation on a special population of cells, i.e., those
biological fluids thus results from the equilibrium between that express both P2X7 and ART2. This is essentially the
its release from intracellular stores and its degradation by population of naive or resting T lymphocytes, since ART2
NAD-catabolising enzymes. expression is limited to T cells, and activation of these cells
In principle, extracellular NAD may be hydrolysed by leads to the proteolytic cleavage of ART2 by metal-
the CD38 and CD157 NAD-glycohydrolases or by phos- loproteases and its shedding from the cell surface as an
phodiesterases (E-NPPs) present on the membrane of active enzyme [67]. It is not yet clear whether the ART2
several cells as well as in soluble form in biological fluids. enzyme liberated from activated T cells is capable of ADP-
CD38 is the major NAD-glycohydrolase/ADP-ribosyl ribosylating other target proteins that may be soluble or on
cyclase present in the extracellular compartment [27]. the surface of other cells. Cells that have shed their ART2,
Experiments in vitro point to a major role of CD38 in however, are resistant to NAD-mediated activation of P2X7
controlling the level of ADP-ribosylation on the surface of and thus insensitive to NICD.
T cells [26]. In these experiments, the presence of CD38, For these cells NAD-dependent P2X7 activation pro-
which is highly expressed by B cells, and at lower level on vides a mechanism for signalling through P2X7 that
activated T cells, greatly impaired the level of ADP- requires only low concentrations of extracellular nucleotide,
riboyslation detected on the surface of T cells upon which may be more easily attainable in vivo than the high
treatment with NAD. Magnetic depletion of B cells from concentrations required for ATP-mediated signalling.
cell preparations and/or the use of ara-F-NAD to selectively The precise role of NICD in vivo remains elusive.
block CD38 activity, greatly enhanced detectable ADP- However, based on the available data, one can speculate
ribosylation. In line with these findings, cells prepared from that NICD is a mechanism to focus immune reactivity onto
CD38-/- deficient mice showed increased apparent ADP- appropriate targets, i.e., pathogens causing tissue damage,
ribosyl transferase activity in vitro. These observations while at the same time protecting against auto-immune
underline the important role of the CD38 NADase in reactions. According to this hypothesis, NAD is preferen-
regulating ADP-ribosylation reactions by limiting the tially released at sites of tissue damage and inflammation,
concentration of available extracellular NAD. However, the and would act locally to eliminate regulatory T cells, while
situation may be more complex in vivo, where other NAD- sparing antigen-specific effector cells. This would result in
metabolising enzymes such as phosphodiesterases, which are an augmentation of the immune response at a site of
expressed for instance on vascular endothelium, may also play infection. In addition, NICD would affect nave T cells
a role to control the level of NAD in body fluids. present in the local environment, thereby limiting the
In a similar fashion, it has been shown that the CD39 unwanted activation of bystander cells. Finally, it is
ecto-nucleotidase is the major determinant for the regula- conceivable that NAD might gain access to the draining
tion of extracellular ATP levels in blood. CD39 is also lymph nodes in concentrations sufficient to elicit a
highly expressed on Langerhans cells of the skin, where it cytotoxic effect. Here it would also act to augment the
prevents hyperreactivity of these cells to ATP released from immune response. Besides killing regulatory T cells present
keratinocytes, for instance during injury by topically in the lymph node, NAD could eliminate a fraction of naive
applied irritant chemicals [78]. Interestingly, CD39-defi- T lymphocytes, thus creating space for the expansion of
cient mice also show reduced T-cell dependent immune activated and memory lymphocytes.
Purinergic Signalling (2007) 3:71 81 79
postganglionic nerve terminals in blood vessels and urinary
Conclusions
bladder. J Biol Chem 279:48893 48903
8. la Sala A, Ferrari D, Di Virgilio F et al (2003) Alerting and tuning
Extracellular nucleotides such as ATP and NAD are ideally
the immune response by extracellular nucleotides. J Leukoc Biol
suited as extracellular signal transmitters, since they can be 73:339 343
9. Hanley PJ, Musset B, Renigunta V et al (2004) Extracellular ATP
rapidly mobilised from intracellular stores and their action
induces oscillations of intracellular Ca2+ and membrane potential
is rapidly terminated by degradation through nucleotide
and promotes transcription of IL-6 in macrophages. Proc Natl
catabolising enzymes. ATP and NAD are preferentially
Acad Sci U S A 101:9479 9484
released from intracellular stores in conditions of cell stress 10. Di Virgilio F (2005) Purinergic mechanism in the immune system: a
signal of danger for dendritic cells. Purinergic Signalling 1:205 209
or inflammation, and thus may function as classical danger
11. Ralevic V, Burnstock G (1998) Receptors for purines and
signals to alert the immune response. A high degree of
pyrimidines. Pharmacol Rev 50:413 492
plasticity is attained by their capacity to signal through
12. Dubyak GR (2003) Knock-out mice reveal tissue-specific roles of
different receptors at different concentrations, as well as by P2Y receptor subtypes in different epithelia. Mol Pharmacol
63:773 776
their degradation to metabolites that by themselves are
13. Fredholm BB, Abbracchio MP, Burnstock G et al (1997) Towards
capable of signal transmission through other receptors.
a revised nomenclature for P1 and P2 receptors. Trends Pharmacol
Consequently, the net effect of signalling in a given
Sci 18:79 82
microenvironment will be critically dependent on the 14. Khakh BS, Burnstock G, Kennedy C et al (2001) International
union of pharmacology. XXIV. Current status of the nomenclature
locally available nucleotide concentration and the particular
and properties of P2X receptors and their subunits. Pharmacol
constellation of nucleotide receptors and nucleotide-utilis-
Rev 53:107 118
ing enzymes present. Understanding the intricacies of the
15. Burnstock G, Williams M (2000) P2 purinergic receptors:
network of purine sensors on the surface of immune cells modulation of cell function and therapeutic potential. J Pharmacol
Exp Ther 295, 862 869
remains a major challenge that will ultimately lead to the
16. Bodin P, Burnstock G (2001) Purinergic signalling: ATP release.
development of new possibilities for pharmacological
Neurochem Res 26:959 969
modulation of immune responses.
17. Ferrari D, Chiozzi P, Falzoni S et al (1997) Purinergic modulation
of interleukin-1 beta release from microglial cells stimulated with
bacterial endotoxin. J Exp Med 185:579 582
Note added in proof A recent study shows that P2Y11 can be
18. Mehta VB, Hart J, Wewers MD (2001) ATP-stimulated release of
activated by micromolar concentrations of ecto-NAD. Moreschi I et al
interleukin (IL)-1beta and IL-18 requires priming by lipopolysac-
(2006) Extracellular NAD+ is an agonist of the human P2Y11
charide and is independent of caspase-1 cleavage. J Biol Chem
purinergic receptor in human granulocytes. J Biol Chem 281:31419 29.
276:3820 3826
19. Suzuki T, Hide I, Ido K et al (2004) Production and release of
Acknowledgements This work was supported by DFG grant
neuroprotective tumor necrosis factor by P2X7 receptor-activated
No310/6-1 to FKN and FH, and grants from the Ligue Nationale
microglia. J Neurosci 24:1 7
Contre le Cancer, the Association pour la Recherche sur le Cancer,
20. la Sala A, Sebastiani S, Ferrari D et al (2002) Dendritic cells
and the MinistŁre de la Recherche to MS. SA was a recipient of
exposed to extracellular adenosine triphosphate acquire the
stipends from the Fondation pour la Recherche Medicale and the
migratory properties of mature cells and show a reduced capacity
INSERM/DFG.
to attract type 1 T lymphocytes. Blood 99:1715 1722
21. la Sala A, Ferrari D, Corinti S et al (2001) Extracellular ATP
induces a distorted maturation of dendritic cells and inhibits their
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