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tional ąuestion" ought to be formulated, by contrast with the 18* and 19* century question of the constitution of nation-statcs. While that had to do with disciplining rcprcssive political power by law, the point today is to disci-pline quite diffcrcnt social dynamics. This is in the first place another question for theory. Will constitutional theory manage to gcncralise its nation-state tradition in contcmporary terms and re-specify it? Can we, then, make the tradition of the nation-state constitution fruitful, while at the same time chan-ging it to let it do justicc to the new phenomena of digitisation, privatisation and globalisation?

II. REACTIONS IN CONSTITUTIONAL THEORY

Contcmporary gcncralisation and re-specification-this is a problem where several ambitious attcmpts to postulate a universal world constitution beyond the nation-state havc labourcd away at in vain. This is true of legał efforts to see the United Nations Charter as the constitutional law of the “intemational community” put into force by a world sovereign and legitimising the exercise of global political power. It is, however, also true of a number of philosophical cndcavours in the Kantian tradition to conceive a universal world constitution where the introduction of new political institutions and procedurcs of global statchood is supposcd to be uscd to set up a federative centre and forum of common world intcmal policy. Ali attempts can be reproached with not genera-lising the traditional concept of the constitution sufficicntiy for today's cir-cumstances, nor re-specifying it carefully cnough, but instead uncritically trans-ferring nation-state circumstances to world socicty. In particular, the changcs the concept of constitution would havc to go through in relation to sovcrcign-ty, organised collectivity, hierarchies of decision, organiscd aggregation of interests and democratic legitimacy, if no cquivalcnt of the State is to be found at world level.

There is morę realism in attempts to dissociate State and constitution clcar-ly, and expiicitly conceive of a global constitution without a world State. This innovative construction has most recently bccn cxhaustivcly deployed in the debate on the European constitution, but at world lcvcl too, the attempt is madę to track down constitutional elements in the current process of an International politics that has no central collcctivc actor as subject/objcct of a constitution. Especially the attempt to sec the co-cxistcncc of nation-states as a segmental second-order differentiation of world politics and their intcrac-tion as a spontaneous order of a secondary naturę, a “world constitution of freedom,” lend a world constitution re-speciftcd in this way as a structural link between dcccntraliscd world politics and law quitc a diffcrcnt shape. Yct herc too the generalisation does not go far enough to do justice to the decentralisa-tion of politics in world society. In particular, this sort of spontaneous consti-tution of States has to contcnd with the problem of whether and how non-state actors and non-state regimes can be incorporatcd in the intcrnational proccss of constitutionalization.

This shorteoming is in tum the starting point for positions that cxplicitly transform actors not traditionally rccogniscd as subjccts of intcrnational law into constitutional subjeets. Thcsc actors arc on the one hand intcrnational organisations, multinational enterprises, intcrnational trade unions, interest gro-ups and non-govcmmental organisations as participants in global dccision-rnaking, and on the other individuals, only hcsitantly and marginally acccptcd by intcrnational law as legał subjccts, as the bearers of fundamcntal and hu-man rights. Implicitly, such pluralist conccptions rccognisc that the processes of digitisation and global nctworking arc dccisively carricd by non-state actors, the cxistcncc of which a world constitution too would havc to takc cogni-sancc of. The ąuestion is, howevcr, whether a mcrcly pcrsonal cxtcnsion of a constitutionalisation process is still adcquatc, and whether quitc different structurcs and processes ought not to be ineluded.

Finally, yet a further step is taken by idcas of the horizontal cffect of fundamental rights, no longcr asserting fundamcntal rights-positions cxclusi-vely against political bodies, but also against social institutions, in particular vis-a-vis centrcs of economic power. Nation States arc supposcd to havc cor-responding protective obligations imposed upon them, in order to combat thre-ats to fundamental rights in arcas rcmotc from the State. Evcn if this debatę is only at the vcry beginnings in the intemational sphere, in view of the massive human rights infringements by non-state actors it points out the necessity for an cxtcnsion of constitutionalism bcyond purely intergovemmental relations.

III. THE THESIS: CONSTITUTIONALISATION WITHOUT THE STATE.

Thcsc four concepts of a global constitution constitute quite dramatic extensions from the constitutional tradition, yet ultimately they cannot free themseK es of the fascination of the nation-state architecture, but merely seek to compcnsatc for its obvious inadcquacics with all sorts of patches, add-ons, re-buildings, cxcavations and dccorativc facades-altogether merely complexi-tying the construction instead of building ex novo. But the design error alre-ady lies in the state-centring of the constitution. For all the courage to rethink the constitution in a direction of political globality, in the light of an intergo-vemmental proccss, through the inclusion of actors in society, and in terms of horizontal effeets of fundamcntal rights, they nonetheless remain stuck at se-eing the constitution as tied to statc-political action.

At the same time they arc tied to a strange distinction, between the poles of which they continually oscillatc. While the constitution ought institutional-

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