Clifford Algebras Obtained by Twisting of Group Algebras
Helena Albuquerque1
Departamento de Matematica-Faculdade de Ciencias e Tecnologia
Universidade de Coimbra, Apartado 3008
3000 Coimbra, Portugal
lena@mat.uc.pt
+
Shahn Majid
School of Mathematical Sciences
Queen Mary, University of London
Mile End Rd, London E1 4NS, UK
www.maths.qmw.ac.uk/Ümajid
October 2000
Abstract We investigate the construction and properties of Clifford algebras by a
similar manner as our previous construction of the octonions, namely as a twisting of
group algebras of Zn by a cocycle. Our approach is more general than the usual one
2
based on generators and relations. We obtain in particular the periodicity properties
and a new construction of spinors in terms of left and right multiplication in the
Clifford algebra.
1 Introduction
In [1] we have constructed the octonions and other Cayley algebras by a twisting procedure applied
to group algebras kG by a 2-cochain F on the group. The failure of the cochain to be a group cocycle
controls the nonassociativity of these algebras. On the other hand, in the case when the cochain is
actually a group cocycle the associativity will be preserved by twisting. It has already been observed
that, in particular, if one uses cocycles which are the quadratic part of the cochains in [1] that define
the Cayley algebras then one has in fact their associated Clifford algebras.
In this paper we will explore this construction further, using this point of view to give a new deriva-
tion of known results about Clifford algebras and to generalise them. Results include the periodicity
theorems for Clifford algebras and a novel construction for their spinor representations. The paper
begins in Section 2 by showing how a specific cocycle gives the usual Clifford algebras and many of
their properties in a more direct manner. Section 3 contains some constructions for general groups and
cocycles that include and generalise the periodicity theorems. Section 4 contains spinor constructions
for usual Clifford algebras obtained by our methods. As an example, spinors in 4 dimensions are
naturally described as quaternion valued functions.
1
Supported by CMUC-FCT
1
arXiv:math.QA/0011040 v1 7 Nov 2000
1.1 Preliminaries
Let k be a field with characteristic not 2. Let q be a nondegenerate quadratic form on a vector space
V over k of dimension n. It is known[3] that there is an orthogonal basis {e1, · · ·, en}, say, of V such
that q(ei) = qi for some qi = 0. The Clifford algebra C(V, q), [2], is the associative algebra generated

by 1 and {ei} with the relations
e2 = qi.1, eiej + ejei = 0, "i = j

i
We identify k and V inside C(V, q) in the obvious way. The dimension of C(V, q) is 2n and it has a
canonical basis
{ei1 · · · eip| 1 d" i1 < i2 · · · < ip d" n}.
If we assume that qi = Ä…1 (without loss of generality over R, for example) then for n = 1 we have
two cases: If q1 = -1 we have C(k, q1) the algebraic complex numbers where we adjoin i = e1 with
relation i2 = -1. If q1 = 1 we have the group algebra of Z2 with e1 the nontrivial element. Setting
eÄ… = (1 Ä… e1)/2 we have equivalently two projections
e2 = eÄ…, e+e- = e-e+ = 0
Ä…
and C(k, q1) = k •" k (the hyperbolic complex numbers over R).
If n = 2 we have
e1e2 = -e2e1, e2 = qi, (e1e2)2 = -q1q2, (e1e2)e1 = -q1e2, (e1e2)e2 = q2e1.
i
Hence for q1 = q2 = -1 we have the k-algebra of quaternions H with i = e1, j = e2 and k = e1e2. If
1 0 0 1
q1 = q2 = 1 we have the matrix algebra M2(k) with e1 = and e2 = . If q1 = 1 and
0 -1 1 0
0 1
q2 = -1 we have M2(k) similarly with e2 = instead. Thus
-1 0
C(0, 2)<"H, C(2, 0)<"C(1, 1)<"M2(k)
= = =
where C(r, s) denotes the algebra with r of the {qi} equal to +1 and s equal to -1.
2 C(V ) as twisting
From [1] we recall that if G is a group and F : G × G k a nowhere-zero function with F (e, x) =
F (x, e) = 1 (a cochain), where e is the group identity, then we define a new algebra kF G which has the
same vector space as the group algebra kG (namely with basis labelled by G) but a different product,
namely
a · b = F (a, b)ab, "a, b " G. (1)
2
This arises naturally as an algebra in the category of comodules of the dual-quasiHopf algebra
(kG, "F ). When F is a cocycle this gives a cotriangular usual Hopf algebra structure on kG. We first
construct this.
Proposition 2.1 Let G = Zn. There is a 2-cocycle F " Z2(G, k) defined by
2
n
xiyj xiyi
jF (x, y) = (-1) qi
i=1
where x = (x1, · · ·xn) " Zn and twists kG into a cotriangular Hopf algebra[5] with cotriangular
2
structure
R(x, y) = (-1)Á(x)Á(y)+x·y,
where Á(x) = xi " Z and x · y is the dot product of Z2-valued vectors.
i
Proof We then define the cochain F as shown which is manifestly invertible as qi = 0 and the identity

when either argument is zero. Using the notation x = (x1, · · ·, xn), it is clear that
n
F (x, y)F (x + y, z)
xiyi+(xi+yi)zi-yi zi-xi(yi+zi)
"F (x, y, z) = = qi = 1
F (y, z)F (x, y + z)
i=1
since the (-1) factors certainly do not contribute by linearity. The remaining factors again cancel
because the exponents are controlled by a bilinear form. Hence by the twisting theory for Hopf
algebras[4][5] the group algebra kG becomes a cotriangular Hopf algebra with the same Hopf algebra
structure (namely every element of the group has diagonal coproduct) but with R : kG " kG k
F (x,y)
defined by R(x, y) = on the basis elements of kG (labeled by G). This readily comes out as
F (y,x)
shown.
The modification of product (1) from kG to a new algebra kF G is an application of twisting to
comodule algebras[6] and ensures that all its structure maps are morphisms in the symmetric monoidal
category[7] of (kG, "F )-comodules. This category is the same as that of G-graded spaces equipped with
a generalised transposition given by R and associativity by "F . Because in our case the coboundary
"F = 1, the new algebra remains associative in the usual sense.
Applying this construction, the original product of basis elements in kZn corresponds to the addi-
2
tion in Zn. We now define kF Zn as the same vector space as kZn but with the new product modified
2 2 2
by F . For clarity we denote the basis elements of kZn by
2
ex = ex1 · · · exn (2)
1 n
where the unmodified algebra kZn is generated by ei mutually commuting and with e2 = 1.
2 i
Proposition 2.2 The algebra kF Zn can be identified with C(V, q), i.e. the latter is an algebra in the
2
symmetric monoidal category of Zn-graded spaces defined by R.
2
3
Proof We identify the elements ei in the two algebras and note that ei · ej = eiej if i < j since
F (x, y) = 1 in this case (where xi = 1 = yj and other entries are zero). Hence we can identify also
the basis elements
ex1 · ex2 · · · exn = ex
1 2 n
of the two algebras. After that it remains only to check that the products coincide for other products,
which can be check inductively from the generators. Here one has
ei · ej = -eiej = -ejei = -ej · ei, ei · ei = qie2 = qi1, "i, j < i.
i
We can now apply some of the results in [1] albeit in the associative setting since Ć = "F = 1.
Corollary 2.3 The algebra C(V, q) is commutative under the generalised transposition or  braiding
of the symmetric monoidal category defined by R, i.e. ex · ey = R(x, y)ey · ex. In particular,
ey · ex if x · y = Á(x)Á(y) (mod 2)
ex · ey =
-ey · ex else.
Proof This is an immediate consequence of the above construction in terms of F since a · b =
F (a,b)
F (a, b)ab = F (a, b)ba = b · a. In our case it takes the form shown. The result is also clearly true
F (b,a)
on repeated use of the anticommutation relations of C(V, q) but in our approach these are encoded
concisely in R as stated. Note that either x · y = Á(x)Á(y) or x · y = Á(x)Á(y) + 1 mod 2, so two basis
elements either commute or anticommute.
We therefore apply various results about kF G algebras in [1] to Clifford algebras. For example,
Proposition 2.4 R in Proposition 2.1 is a group coboundary, R = "¸ for cochain
1
¸(x) = (-1)2 Á(x)(Á(x)-1)
with ¸2 = 1. Hence by [1, Lem. 3.4] Åš(ex) = ¸(x)ex is a diagonal anti-involution on the Clifford
algebra C(V, q). Explicitly, Åš is the order-reversal operation
Åš(ex1 · · · exn) = exn · · · ex1.
1 n n 1
Proof We show that R(x, y) = ¸(x)¸(y)/¸(x+y), where we write the group structure of Zn additively.
2
Viewing Á(x) = xi in Z,
i
Á(x + y) = xi(1 - yi) + (1 - xi)yi = Á(x) + Á(y) - 2x · y (3)
i
4
and hence
1 2 1 2
¸(x+y) = (-1)2(Á(x+y) -Á(x+y)) = (-1)2(Á(x) +Á(y)2+2Á(x)Á(y)-Á(x)-Á(y)+2x·y) = ¸(x)¸(y)(-1)Á(x)Á(y)+x·y.
Hence ¸ defines an anti-involution Åš. In C(V, q) we can identify it with order-reversal on noting that
1
xixj
jexn · · ·ex1 = ex(-1) = ex(-1)2 Á(x)(Á(x)-1),
n 1
where Á(x)2 = xixj = 2 xixj + x2 = 2 xixj + Á(x) since xi = 0, 1.
i,j jIt is clear that Åš is an isomorphism between C(V, q) and its opposite algebra, which in turn is
op
op
of form kF Zn for F (x, y) = F (y, x). We also obtain from Á the obvious Z2-grading of Clifford
2
algebras provided by an order 2 automorphism. Here degree zero is the eigenspace with eigenvalue 1
under the involution.
Corollary 2.5 Ã(ex) = (-1)Á(x)ex extended linearly is an automorphism of C(V, q) in the form above
and makes it into a super-algebra with Á the super degree. If n is even then à is inner, being imple-
mented by e(1,···,1) = e1 · · · en.
Proof The first part is again an immediate consequence of the above construction in terms of F since
kF Zn is Zn-covariant (it is an algebra in the category of Zn-graded spaces). The map Á : Zn Z
2 2 2 2
n
given by Á(x) = xi is additive mod 2 (a group homomorphism to Z2) and therefore induces a
i=1
functor from the category of Zn-graded spaces to that of Z2-graded ones. Under this any Zn-graded
2 2
algebra is also a Z2-graded or super algebra. The second part is a well-known from generators and
relations. In our case it comes about as
e-1 exe(1,···,1) = e-1 e(1,···,1)ex(-1)Á(x)Á(1,···,1)+x·(1,···,1) = ex(-1)(n+1)Á(x)
(1,···,1) (1,···,1)
using the braided-commutativity in Corollary 2.3. Note also that
n(n-1)
2
e2 = F ((1, · · ·1), (1, · · ·, 1)) = (-1) qi. (4)
(1,···,1)
i
In terms of this superalgebra structure one can say that the natural braiding on C(V, q) defined
by R in Proposition 2.1 (with respect to which the Clifford algebra is braided-commutative) is of the
form
¨(ex " ey) = ¨super(ex " ey)(-1)x·y (5)
where ¨super refers to the usual bose-fermi statistics or supertransposition. There are of course many
other applications of the superalgebra structure.
5
Corollary 2.6 C(V •" W, q •" p)<"C(V, q)"C(W, p) as super algebras.
=
Proof This is well-known from the point of view of generators and relations. In our description it is
clear from the form of F in Proposition 2.1 as
F ((x, x ), (y, y )) = F (x, y)F (x , y )(-1)Á(x )Á(y)
where {ex} is a basis of V and {ex } of W , say. Hence the algebra product has the form (a " c)(b " d) =
a · b " c · d(-1)Á(c)Á(b) for the super tensor product of super algebras. The notation q •" p indicates
zero inner product between V and W .
Finally, our approach also gives more explicit formulae for the adjoint action and Pin groups. First
of all our explicit form of the product means that all the basis elements ex are invertible in C(V, q), as
are generic linear combinations for qi = Ä…1. The latter fact is because the products all have coefficients
Ä…1 coming from the values of F . Clearly
xixj
jex (-1) Åš(ex)
e-1 = = ex n xi = (6)
x n xi
F (x, x) qi qi
i=1 i=1
in terms of the anti-involution above. We recall that the Clifford group of V consists of the invertible
elements of C(V, q) that leave V stable under the adjoint action.
Corollary 2.7 The adjoint action defined by ada(ey) = Ã(a)eya-1 for all invertible a " C(V, q) takes
the explicit form
adex(ey) = (-1)Á(x)(Á(y)+1)(-1)x·yey.
Proof This follows immediately from the braided-commutativity, i.e. from the form of R in Proposi-
tion 2.1 and Corollary 2.3. Thus (-1)Á(x)ex · ey · e-1 = (-1)Á(x)(-1)Á(x)Á(y)+x·yey · ex · e-1.
x x
Also, using S, one defines  : C(V, q) k by exà ć% Åšex = (ex)1. From our formula for inverses
we obtain explicitly
n
xi
(ex) = (-1)Á(x) qi . (7)
i=1
By definition the group Pin(V ) is the subgroup of the Clifford group with  = Ä…1 and clearly includes
all the ex when qi = Ä…1. The even part of this is the spin group. These groups map surjectively onto
O(V ) and SO(V ) via ad.
3 Clifford process
We now use the above convenient description of Clifford algebras to express a  doubling process similar
to the Dickson process for division algebras. Thus, let A be a finite-dimensional algebra with identity
6
1 and à an involutive automorphism of A. For any fixed element q " k" there is a new algebra of
twice the dimension,

= A •" Av, (a + bv) · (c + dv) = a · c + qb · Ã(d) + (a · d + b · Ã(c))v
with a new involutive automorphism
Ã(a + vb) = Ã(a) - Ã(b)v.
Å»
We will say that
is obtained from A by Clifford process, see [2]. We consider this initially for not
necessarily associative algebras and then find conditions for associativity to be preserved.
Proposition 3.1 Let G be a finite Abelian group and F a cochain as above, so kF G is a G-graded
quasialgebra. For any s : G k" with s(e) = 1 and any q " k", define  = G × Z2 and
Å»(x, Å»(x, Å»(xv,
F yv) = F (x, y) = F y), F y) = s(y)F (x, y)
Å»(xv,
F yv) = qs(y)F (x, y), s(x) = s(x), s(xv) = -s(x)
Å» Å»
for all x, y " G. Here x a" (x, e) and xv a" (x, ·) where · with ·2 = e is the generator of the Z2. If
Ã(ex) = s(x)ex is an involutive automorphism then kF  is the Clifford process applied to kF G.
Å»
Å»(e, Å»(xv,
Proof We clearly have a new cochain since F xv) = F (e, x) = 1 and F e) = s(e)F (x, e) = 1.
The formulae are fixed by reproducing the product of
in the involutive case. Thus F (x, yv)xyv =
x · yv = (x · y)v = F (x, y)xyv, F (xv, y)xvy = xv · y = (x · Ã(y))v = s(y)(x · y)v = s(y)F (x, y)xyv,
etc.
It is easy to see that the special case where s defines an involutive automorphism on kF G is
precisely the one where s : G k" is a character with s2 = 1.
Proposition 3.2 For any s : G k" and q " k" as above the kF  given by the generalised Clifford
Å»
process has associator and braiding
Å» Å» Å»
Ć(x, yv, z) = Ć(x, y, zv) = Ć(x, yv, zv) = Ć(x, y, z)
s(yz)
Å» Å»
Ć(xv, y, z) = Ć(xv, yv, z) = Ć(xv, y, zv) = Ć(xv, yv, zv) = Ć(x, y, z)
s(y)s(z)
R(x, y) s(y)
Å» Å» Å» Å»
R(x, y) = R(x, y), R(xv, y) = s(y)R(x, y), R(x, yv) = , R(xv, yv) = R(x, y) .
s(x) s(x)
7
Proof This is an elementary computation from the definitions of Ć, R for kF G and kF  and the form
Å»
Å»
of F above. For example,
Å»(xv, Å»
F y)F(xvy, z) s(y)F (x, y)s(z)F (xy, z) s(y)s(z)
Å»
Ć(xv, y, z) = = = Ć(x, y, z)
Å»(y, Å»
F z)F(xv, yz) F (y, z)s(yz)F (x, yz) s(yz)
Å»(xv,yv) s(y)F (x,y)
F R(x,y)s(y)
Å»
as stated. Similarly R(xv, yv) = = = , etc.
Å»(yv,xv) s(x)F (y,x) s(x)
F
The merit of our approach is that these computations of the associator and braiding are elementary
but the properties of kF  can be read off in terms of them. Thus it is immediate that,
Å»
Å»
Corollary 3.3 If s defines an involutive automorphism à then Ć = 1 iff Ć = 1, i.e. kF  is associative
Å»
iff kF G is.
Å»
Proof In this case Ć and Ć are given by the same expressions independently of the placement of v.
Similarly, we gave in [1] conditions for kF G to be alternative in terms of R, Ć. Using these, we
have
Corollary 3.4 If s defines an involutive automorphism à then kF  is alternative iff
Å»
(i) kF G is alternative
(ii) For all x, y, z " G, either Ć(x, y, z) = 1 or s(x) = s(y) = s(z) = 1.
Å» Å»
Proof Since Ć, R restrict to Ć, R it is immediate that kF  alternative implies kF G alternative. Here
Å»
alternativity of kF G is explicitly the condition
Ć(x, y, z) + R(z, y)Ć(x, z, y) = 1 + R(z, y)
Ć-1(x, y, z) + R(y, x)Ć-1(y, x, z) = 1 + R(y, x)
while for kF  we have these and other cases such as
Å»
Å» Å» Å» Å»
Ć(x, y, zv) + R(zv, y)Ć(x, zv, y) = 1 + R(zv, y)
or, from the above results,
Ć(x, y, z) + s(y)R(z, y)Ć(x, z, y) = 1 + s(y)R(z, y).
Comparing, we see that in this case (Ć(x, z, y) - 1)(s(y) - 1) = 0. Similarly the content of the
other cases of the condition for kF  alternative is precisely that (Ć(x, z, y) - 1)(s(x) - 1) = 0 and
Å»
(Ć(x, z, y) - 1)(s(z) - 1) = 0 as well. Thus kF  is alternative iff kF G is and for all x, y, z,
Å»
Ć(x, y, z) = 1, or s(x) = s(y) = s(z) = 1.
8
What this means is that either kF G is associative for the conclusion to hold or, if not, then à has
to be nontrivial for some of the elements whose product fails to associate.
We now look at the case where F, s, q are of the form
F (x, y) = (-1)f (x,y), s(x) = (-1)¾(x), q = (-1) (8)
for some Z2-valued functions f, ¾ and " Z2. We also suppose that G = Zn and use a vector notation.
2
Lemma 3.5 For G, F, s based on Z2, the generalised Clifford process yields the same form with G =
Zn+1 and
2
Å» Å»
f((x, xn+1), (y, yn+1)) = f(x, y) + (yn+1 + ¾(y))xn+1, ¾(x, xn+1) = ¾(x) + xn+1.
Å» Å»(xv,
Proof Clearly f(xv, yv) = + ¾(y) + f(x, y) is the case where xn+1 = yn+1 = 1, while f y) =
¾(y) + f(x, y) is the case where xn+1 = 1 and yn+1 = 0. The other two cases require to yield f(x, y).
Å»
The four cases can then be expressed together as stated using the field Z2. Similarly for ¾.
Corollary 3.6 Starting with k and iterating the Clifford process with a choice of qi = (-1) i at each
step, we arrive at the standard C(V, q) in Proposition 2.1 and the standard automorphism Ã(ex) =
(-1)Á(x)ex.
Proof We start with f = 0 and ¾ = 0. Clearly ¾(x) = Á(x) after n steps independently of . We also
i
build up the expression xiyj in f as required, and additional contribution to f which gives the
jproduct the expression in Proposition 2.1.
Equivalently we can read Lemma 3.5 inductively. If we use the notation C(r, s) for the number of
Ä… in the quadratic form then,
Corollary 3.7 Starting with C(r, s) the Clifford process with q = 1 yields C(r + 1, s). With q = -1 it
gives C(r, s + 1). Hence any C(m, n) with m e" r, n e" s can be obtained from successive applications
of the Clifford process from C(r, s).
Å»
Proof f in the lemma above, given that ¾(x) = Á(x), is manifestly of the required form. Here
¾(y)xn+1 = xn+1yj and yn+1xn+1 gives the extra factor in the product in the expression in
jProposition 2.1.
Note also that the definition of
can be written equally well as some kind of  tensor product

= A "Ã C(k, q) where C(k, q) = k[v] with the relation v2 = q, and "Ã denotes that
factorises into
9
these subalgebras with the cross relations va = Ã(a)v for all a " A. As kF G algebras we do not need
to assume an involutive automorphism à and clearly have kF  = kF G "s C(k, q) in general with cross
Å»
relations v · x = s(x)x · v. On the other hand, when à is an involutive automorphism this is clearly a
super tensor product of Z2-graded algebras.
Lemma 3.8 When à is an involutive automorphism as in the Clifford process, we have
= A"C(k, q)
a super tensor product. Moreover, applying twice with q1, q2 gives
Å»=

<"A"C(k •" k, (q1, q2)).
Proof The super tensor product A"C(k, q1) contains each factor as subalgebras with cross relations
av = (-1)¾(a)va = Ã(a)v where ¾(a) is the Z2-degree corresponding to Ã. This is obviously the content
of the Clifford process. Applying twice we have
Å»

=
"C(k, q2) = (A"C(k, q1))"C(k, q2) = A"(C(k, q1)"C(k, q2)
using that the super tensor product " is an associative operation. We then use Corollary 2.6
This superalgebra periodicity can then be expressed in more usual form using the following propo-
sition.
Proposition 3.9 Let dim(V ) = 2m be even and à an involutive automorphism on kF G defined by s
of the form s(x) = (-1)Á(x) for a Z-valued function Á. Then
kF G"C(V, q)<"kF G " C(V, q),
=
where
1
F (x, y) = F (x, y)((-1)m(2m-1)q1 · · · q2m)2 (Á(xy)-Á(x)-Á(y)).
"
If 1
= -1 " k then F is cohomologous to F .
Proof Here Á must differ from an additive character by an even integer, hence F is well-defined. We
assume that qi = Ä…1 so that µ a" (-1)m(2m-1)q1 · · · q2m = Ä…1. If µ = 1 then F = F . Otherwise
"
if 1
= -1 " k then clearly F = F "s where s(x) = 1
-Á(x). Here "s(x, y) = s(x)s(y)/s(xy) is (an
1
exact) cocycle. The same calculation shows that (-1)2 (Á(xy)-Á(x)-Á(y)) is a cocycle even if 1
" k,
/
so that F is necessarily a cocycle. Now let Ć : kF G " C(V, q) kF G " C(V, q) be defined by
Ć(x) = x(e1 · · · e2m)Á(x) when restricted to kF G and the identity on C(V, q). Here Å‚ a" e1 · · · e2m
implements the Z2-grading automorphism of C(V, q) as in Corollary 2.5 and has square µ = Ä…1 (these
are in fact the only properties of C(V, q) that we use, i.e. the same result applies for any superalgebra
with grading implemented by an element Å‚ with Å‚2 = Ä…1). Then for all x, y " G we have
F (x, y) 1
Ć(x·F y) = F (x, y)Ć(xy) = F (x, y)xyÅ‚Á(xy) = x·F yÅ‚Á(x)+Á(y)µ2 (Á(xy)-Á(x)-Á(y)) = xÅ‚Á(x)yÅ‚Á(y)
F (x, y)
10
which is Ć(x)Ć(y) as required. We also have
Ć(eix) = Ć(xei(-1)Á(x)) = xÅ‚Á(x)ei(-1)Á(x) = eixÅ‚Á(x) = Ć(ei)Ć(x)
as required. Hence Ć (which is clearly a linear isomorphism) is an algebra isomorphism as well.
The group and cocycle F above are quite general but when we put in the form in Section 2 for
Clifford algebras we immediately obtain
C(V, q)"C(Ä…)<"C(V, -q) " C(Ä…). (9)
=
Here C(k •" k, (q, q)) is C(2, 0) = C(+) or C(0, 2) = C(-) and F (x, y) = F (x, y)(-1)x·y in view of
(3), which changes q to -q. This along with the periodicity Lemma 3.8 implies the usual periodicity
properties for Clifford algebras such as
C(0, n + 2)<"C(n, 0) " H, C(n + 2, 0)<"C(0, n) " M2(k). (10)
= =
The additional observation H " H<"M4(k) then gives the usual table with period 8 for all positive or
=
"
all negative signatures (contructed together). If k is algebraically closed (or at least has -1) the
situation is even simpler; we have periodicity 2 in the Clifford algebras i.e.
m m m
C(2m)<"M2 (k), C(2m + 1)<"M2 (k) •" M2 (k). (11)
= =
Finally, it is possible to extend the Clifford process also to representations.
Proposition 3.10 If W is an irreducible representation of A not isomorphic to WÃ defined by the
Å»
action of Ã(a) then W = W •" WÃ is an irreducible representation Ä„ of
obtained via the Clifford
process with q. Here
0 1 a 0
Ä„(v) = , Ä„(a) =
q 0 0 Ã(a)
are the action on W •" W in block form (here Ä„(a) is the explicit action of a in the direct sum
representation W •" WÃ). If W, WÃ are isomorphic then W itself is an irreducible representation of

for a suitable value of q.
Proof Here WÃ is the same vector space as W but with a acting by Ã(a). Clearly we have a
representation of
= A"k[v] since Ä„(v)Ä„(a) = Ä„(Ã(a))Ä„(v) and Ä„(v)2 = q. If U ‚" W •" W is a
nonzero subrepresentation then it is also a subrepresentation under A. The projection to the first
or second part of the direct sum is A-equivariant hence its image is either 0 or W since W, WÃ are
irredicible. Hence a non-zero U has dimension at least that of W . If equal dimension then one or other
projection is an isomorphism of U with W or WÃ but not both since these are not isomorphic. But
in this case the form of Ä„(v) implies a contradiction. If greater dimension then consider the two maps
11
W W •" W/U by embedding to each summand and quotienting. The image has smaller dimension
than W hence both maps are zero by W irreducible. Hence U = W •" W .
If the two representaions W and WÃ are equivalent then there exists an invertible linear map
Ć : W W such that ĆÁ(a) = Ä„(Ã(a))Ć. We let Ä„(v) = Ć. Note that Ć2 is central since à has order
2, hence Ć2 = q for some q " k". Thus W itself extends to an irreducible representation of
.
Thus k is an irreducible representation of k = C(0, 0) equivalent to its conjugate. Hence k is also
an irreducible representation of k[v] = C(1, 0), the sign representation (say). This is not equivalent to
its conjugate under à (which is the trivial representation). Hence k2 is an irreducible representation
of M2(k) = C(2, 0), its usual one, and so on. In this way the natural representations over any field
may be mapped out.
4 Spinor representations
In this section we use the kF G method to obtain a new approach to the spinor representations for Clif-
ford algebras. We have already seen that Clifford algebras may be constructed as braided-commutative
algebras in a symmetric monoidal category, where the braiding has the form (5) in terms of a Zn-
2
grading. One may make several categorical constructions along the lines of usual vector space con-
structions but with the braiding. For example there is a braided tensor product[8] algebra A"¨A
which acts on A from the left and right. The right action can be viewed as a left action using the
braided-commutativity of A. Here the braided tensor product and the action are
(a " b)(a " b ) = a¨(b " a )b = aa " bb (-1)Á(b)·Á(a )+|b|·|a |, (a " b).c = abc, (12)
when A has braiding ¨ of the form in (5) (so | | is the Zn-grading and Á the induced Z2-grading). The
2
following is a variant of this observation in which we work with the super tensor product algebra and
modify the action to compensate for this.
"
Proposition 4.1 Suppose that 1
= -1 " k. If A is a Zn-graded braided-commutative algebra with
2
respect to ¨ of the form in (5) then the super tensor product A"A acts on A by
(a " b).c = abc(-1)|b|·|c|1
Á(b)
n
where the Á(b) a" |b|i = |b| · |b| is viewed in Z rather than in Z2. Moreover, the action is a
i=1
Zn-graded and Z2-graded one.
Proof Applying the action twice gives
(a " b).((a " b ).c) = aba b c(-1)|b |·|c|+|b|·(|a |+|b |+|c|)1
Á(b )+Á(b)
12
while the action of the super tensor product is
(-1)Á(b)Á(a )(aa " bb ).c = aa bb c(-1)Á(b)Á(a )(-1)(|b|+|b |)·|c|1
Á(b+b )
which gives the same when we use braided-commutativity to write a b = ba (-1)Á(a )Á(b)+|a |·|b| and
when we note that
1
Á(b+b ) = 1
Á(b)1
Á(b )(-1)|b|·|b |
"
by writing Á(b) = |b| · |b| (in other words the existence of -1 allows us to write the cocycle (-1)|b|·|b |
as a group coboundary as in Proposition 3.9). Also, since the action is given by the product in A and
this is Zn-graded it follows that the representation here is a Zn-graded and hence Z2-graded one as
well.
In particular, we can apply this result to any Clifford algebra acting on itself. The super tensor
product algebra is a Clifford algebra on a vector space of twice the dimension by Corollary 2.6.
"
Corollary 4.2 If 1
= -1 " k then C(V •" V, q •" q)<"C(V, q)"C(V, q) acts on C(V, q) by
=
(ex " ey).ez = ex · ey · ez(-1)y·z1
Á(y) = ex+y+z F (x, y)F (x + y, z)(-1)y·z1
Á(y)
where Á(y) = y · y " Z. Moreover, the action is irreducible and yields an isomorphism
C(V •" V, q •" q)<"End(C(V, q)).
=
Proof Here C(V, q) is a superalgebra with the required braided-commutativity from Corollary 2.3
as required. We write in the explicit form of the product in the basis {ex} and the additive group
structure of Zn. This holds in fact for any kF Zn algebra with R of the required form. (Putting in F
2 2
from Proposition 2.1 would give the action in the Clifford algebra case even more explicitly.) For the
irreducibility and the identification with endomorphisms it suffices to show that the action is faithfull
(since the dimensions match). Thus suppose that
0 = cx,y(ex " ey).ez = cx,yF (x, y)F (x + y, z)(-1)y·z1
Á(y)ex+y+z
x,y"Zn
2
for all z " Zn. Changing variables to x + y = x , as x varies the vectors ex +z run through a basis
2
(since Zn is a group). So
2
0 = cx F (x + y, y)(-1)y·z1
Á(y), "z, x .
+y,y
y
We dropped the F (x , z) factor here since it is non-zero for all z, x . For each x fixed this is the Zn
2
Fourier-transform of a function of y, hence the funtion vanishes for all y. Hence cx,y vanish, i.e. our
action is faithfull.
13
Also, the Z2-grading on the representation here is that of C(V, q) and coincides with the canonical
one induced by the action of the  top element e(1,···,1) " e(1,···,1) of C(V •" V, q •" q). From the above
it is given by
n(n-1)
2
(e(1,···,1) " e(1,···1)).ez = ezF ((1, · · ·, 1), (1, · · ·, 1))(-1)Á(z)1
n = (-1)Á(z)ez,  = 1
n(-1) qi.
i
Our action is in closed form, but the explicit action of the generators on using the specific form of
F is
i-1 i-1
xj xi xj
j=1 j=1
(ei " 1).ex = (-1) qi ex+(0,···,1,···0), (1 " ei).ex = 1
(-1) (-qi)xiex+(0,···,1,···0), (13)
where (0, · · ·, 1, · · ·0) denotes 1 in the i th place. This construction is very different from but yields
the same result as the usual construction of spinors[9] on the exterior algebra ›V , which has the same
dimension as C(V, q). Thus, we identify the bases {ei1 '" · · · '" eip} and {ei1 · · ·eip} in the two cases.
With a standard choice of polarisation (or complex structure) on V •"V the usual spinor representation
(with ei a" ei " 1 and en+i a" 1 " ei) is
ei.É = ei '" É + ieiÉ, en+i.É = 1
(ei '" É - ieiÉ), "É " ›V. (14)
Here iv denotes the interior product in ›V with the q norm. This coincides with our action on any
ex since, if xi = 0 only ei'" contributes while if xi = 1 only iei contributes. The effect is therefore to
change xi to xi + 1 mod 2 as in (13). The coefficients also coincide.
Next, given any super representation of a super algebra A one has a usual representation of the
cross product algebra A> kZ2 which is the bosonisation[5] of A. The latter is just defined by adjoining
a generator v with v2 = 1 and cross relations vav-1 = Ã(a)). An irreducible super representation W
of A extends to the bosonistion with v.w = (-1)Á(w)w for all w " W , where Á is the super degree.
"
Corollary 4.3 When -1 " k the odd Clifford algebras C(V •" V •" k, (q •" q, q)) are also represented
irreducibly in the vector space of C(V, q). Here the action of C(V •" V, q •" q) above is extended by the
additional generator e2n+1 acting as ÃW with 2 = q.
Proof Here W = C(V, q) and A = C(V •" V, q •" q). The bosonisation consists in adjoining v which
clearly equivalent to the Clifford process. By a minor rescaling of the generator v we adopt instead the
relation v2 = q for Clifford process with parameter q and identify it with e2n+1 of C(V •"V •"k, (q•"q, q)).
Note that W remains irreducible since any submodule restricted to C(V •" V, q •" q) must coincide
with W .
One can also endow A> kZ2 with a new super algebra structure, with v of degree 1. The extended
representation W is no longer a super representation but one can be obtained by doubling it to
14
Å»
W = W •" W . Thus C(V, q) •" C(V, q)<"C(V •" k, (q, q)) becomes a super representation of the odd
=
Clifford algebra. In this case applying the bosonisation again gives a representation equivalent to
the next higher even Clifford algebra representation acting as in the above Corollary but acting on
C(V •"k, (q, q)). One can also view these results from the Clifford process point of view in the previous
section.
As a very concrete example of our main result, consider the spinor represenation for the Clifford
algebra C(0, 4) in 4 Euclidean dimensions. We work over C and by the above this can be considered
as H"H acting on H where H = C(0, 2) is the complex quaternions. Thus, a  Dirac spinor in physics
is nothing other than an H-valued function. With basis {e1, e2} of the 2-dimensional vector space V
taken as the generators of H, the spinor action from Corollary 4.2 is
(ei " 1).È = eiÈ, (1 " ei).È = 1
eiÈ(-1)|È|i (15)
on a spinor of homogeneous degree |È| " Z2. The right hand side here uses the quaternion product.
2
The construction of spinor representations in terms of left and right actions of quaternions have
previously been alluded to in some contexts in the literature, see for example[10]. However, we are
not aware of a general treatment as above.
As an application, the standard Dirac operator on the 4-dimensional space V •" V under the
identification of Corollary 2.6 is
" = (e1 " 1)"1 + (e2 " 1)"2 + (1 " e1)"3 + (1 " e2)"4
/È
where "1 is differentiation in the first basis direction of V •" V , etc. So this becomes
" = e1("1 + 1
"3(-1)|È|1)È + e2("2 + 1
"4(-1)|È|2)È. (16)
/È
It is possible to make this more explicit by taking a basis of H, namely 1, e1, e2 and e3 a" e1e2. Then
eiej = -´ij + ek, i, j, k = 1, 2, 3
ijk
as usual, in terms of the Kronecker delta-function and the totally antisymmetric tensor with = 1.
123
We write a spinor as an ordered pair È = (È0, Èi) with i = 1, 2, 3 according to the components in this
basis. Finally, we write
"1 = "1 + 1
"3, "2 = "2 + 1
"4
Å»
and denote by " the same expressions with -1
. Then
Å»
(" = -"1È1 - "2È2, (" = "1È0 + "2È3
/È)0 Å» Å» /È)1
Å»
(" = "2È0 - "1È3, (" = "1È2 - "2È1
/È)2 /È)3
15
 Å»
using the relations in H. If we define "3 = 0 and È = (È1, È2, È3) then this can be written compactly
as
Å»
Å»
(" = -" · È, " = "È0 + " × È (17)
/È)0 Å» /È
in terms of usual divergence, gradient and curl in 3 (complex) dimensions and pointwise complex
conjugation.
References
[1] H. Albuquerque and S. Majid. Quasialgebra Structure of Octonions. J. Algebra, 220:188
224, 1999.
[2] G.P.Wene. A construction relating Clifford algebras and Cayley-Dickson algebras. J. Math.
Phys., 25(8):2351 2353, 1984.
[3] T.Y.Lam. The algebraic theory of quadratic forms. W.A.Benjamim, Inc. (Advanced Book
Program), Massachusetts, 1973.
[4] V.G. Drinfeld. QuasiHopf algebras. Leningrad Math. J., 1:1419 1457, 1990.
[5] S. Majid. Foundations of Quantum Group Theory. Cambridge Univeristy Press, 1995.
[6] D.I. Gurevich and S. Majid. Braided groups of Hopf algebras obtained by twisting. Pac.
J. Math., 162:27 44, 1994.
[7] S. Mac Lane. Categories for the Working Mathematician. Springer, 1974. GTM vol. 5.
[8] S. Majid. Algebras and Hopf algebras in braided categories. Volume 158 of Lec. Notes in
Pure and Appl. Math, pages 55 105. Marcel Dekker, 1994.
[9] W.H. Greub. Multilinear Algebra. Graduate Texts in Maths, Vol. 136 (2nd edition).
Springer-Verlag, 1978.
[10] G. Dixon. Division Algebras: Octonions, Quaternions, Complex Numbers and the Algebraic
Design of Physics. Kluwer, 1994.
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